Allow override

This reverts commit 4894dc5da1.

.github/workflows/build.yml

@@ -62,7 +62,7 @@ jobs:
           wget -q https://github.com/postgres/postgres/archive/refs/tags/REL_14_5.tar.gz
           tar xf REL_14_5.tar.gz
       - run: make prove_installcheck PROVE_FLAGS="-I ./postgres-REL_14_5/src/test/perl" PERL5LIB="/Users/runner/perl5/lib/perl5"
-      - run: make clean && /usr/local/opt/llvm@15/bin/scan-build --status-bugs make PG_CFLAGS="-DUSE_ASSERT_CHECKING"
+      - run: make clean && /usr/local/opt/llvm@15/bin/scan-build --status-bugs make
   windows:
     runs-on: windows-latest
     if: ${{ !startsWith(github.ref_name, 'mac') }}

CHANGELOG.md

@@ -1,9 +1,10 @@
 ## 0.5.2 (unreleased)
 
 - Improved performance of HNSW
-- Added support for parallel index builds for HNSW
+- Added support for on-disk parallel index builds for HNSW
 - Reduced memory usage for HNSW index builds
 - Reduced WAL generation for HNSW index builds
+- Fixed error with logical replication
 - Fixed `invalid memory alloc request size` error with HNSW index build
 
 ## 0.5.1 (2023-10-10)

README.md

@@ -304,6 +304,16 @@ SELECT ...
 COMMIT;
 ```
 
+### Index Build Time
+
+Speed up index creation on large tables by increasing the number of parallel workers (2 by default)
+
+```sql
+SET max_parallel_maintenance_workers = 7; -- plus leader
+```
+
+For a large number of workers, you may also need to increase `max_parallel_workers` (8 by default)
+
 ### Indexing Progress
 
 Check [indexing progress](https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/progress-reporting.html#CREATE-INDEX-PROGRESS-REPORTING) with Postgres 12+
@@ -572,7 +582,7 @@ sum(vector) → vector | sum | 0.5.0
 If your machine has multiple Postgres installations, specify the path to [pg_config](https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/app-pgconfig.html) with:
 
 ```sh
-export PG_CONFIG=/Applications/Postgres.app/Contents/Versions/latest/bin/pg_config
+export PG_CONFIG=/Library/PostgreSQL/16/bin/pg_config
 ```
 
 Then re-run the installation instructions (run `make clean` before `make` if needed). If `sudo` is needed for `make install`, use:
@@ -581,6 +591,14 @@ Then re-run the installation instructions (run `make clean` before `make` if nee
 sudo --preserve-env=PG_CONFIG make install
 ```
 
+A few common paths on Mac are:
+
+- EDB installer - `/Library/PostgreSQL/16/bin/pg_config`
+- Homebrew (arm64) - `/opt/homebrew/opt/postgresql@16/bin/pg_config`
+- Homebrew (x86-64) - `/usr/local/opt/postgresql@16/bin/pg_config`
+
+Note: Replace `16` with your Postgres server version
+
 ### Missing Header
 
 If compilation fails with `fatal error: postgres.h: No such file or directory`, make sure Postgres development files are installed on the server.
@@ -593,6 +611,10 @@ sudo apt install postgresql-server-dev-16
 
 Note: Replace `16` with your Postgres server version
 
+### Missing SDK
+
+If compilation fails and the output includes `warning: no such sysroot directory` on Mac, reinstall Xcode Command Line Tools.
+
 ### Windows
 
 Support for Windows is currently experimental. Ensure [C++ support in Visual Studio](https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/cpp/build/building-on-the-command-line?view=msvc-170#download-and-install-the-tools) is installed, and run:
@@ -781,7 +803,25 @@ make prove_installcheck PROVE_TESTS=test/t/001_wal.pl  # TAP test
 To enable benchmarking:
 
 ```sh
-make clean && PG_CFLAGS=-DIVFFLAT_BENCH make && make install
+make clean && PG_CFLAGS="-DIVFFLAT_BENCH" make && make install
+```
+
+To show memory usage:
+
+```sh
+make clean && PG_CFLAGS="-DHNSW_MEMORY -DIVFFLAT_MEMORY" make && make install
+```
+
+To enable assertions:
+
+```sh
+make clean && PG_CFLAGS="-DUSE_ASSERT_CHECKING" make && make install
+```
+
+To get k-means metrics:
+
+```sh
+make clean && PG_CFLAGS="-DIVFFLAT_KMEANS_DEBUG" make && make install
 ```
 
 Resources for contributors

src/hnsw.c

@@ -14,45 +14,15 @@
 #endif
 
 int			hnsw_ef_search;
-int			hnsw_lock_tranche_id;
+bool		hnsw_enable_parallel_build;
 static relopt_kind hnsw_relopt_kind;
 
-/*
- * Assign a tranche ID for our LWLocks. This only needs to be done by one
- * backend, as the tranche ID is remembered in shared memory.
- *
- * This shared memory area is very small, so we just allocate it from the
- * "slop" that PostgreSQL reserves for small allocations like this. If
- * this grows bigger, we should use a shmem_request_hook and
- * RequestAddinShmemSpace() to pre-reserve space for this.
- */
-static void
-HnswInitLockTranche(void)
-{
-	int		   *tranche_ids;
-	bool		found;
-
-	LWLockAcquire(AddinShmemInitLock, LW_EXCLUSIVE);
-	tranche_ids = ShmemInitStruct("hnsw LWLock ids",
-								  sizeof(int) * 1,
-								  &found);
-	if (!found)
-		tranche_ids[0] = LWLockNewTrancheId();
-	hnsw_lock_tranche_id = tranche_ids[0];
-	LWLockRelease(AddinShmemInitLock);
-
-	/* Per-backend registration of the tranche ID */
-	LWLockRegisterTranche(hnsw_lock_tranche_id, "HnswBuild");
-}
-
 /*
  * Initialize index options and variables
  */
 void
 HnswInit(void)
 {
-	HnswInitLockTranche();
-
 	hnsw_relopt_kind = add_reloption_kind();
 	add_int_reloption(hnsw_relopt_kind, "m", "Max number of connections",
 					  HNSW_DEFAULT_M, HNSW_MIN_M, HNSW_MAX_M
@@ -70,6 +40,11 @@ HnswInit(void)
 	DefineCustomIntVariable("hnsw.ef_search", "Sets the size of the dynamic candidate list for search",
 							"Valid range is 1..1000.", &hnsw_ef_search,
 							HNSW_DEFAULT_EF_SEARCH, HNSW_MIN_EF_SEARCH, HNSW_MAX_EF_SEARCH, PGC_USERSET, 0, NULL, NULL, NULL);
+
+	/* Behind a variable for now since can be slower than building in memory */
+	DefineCustomBoolVariable("hnsw.enable_parallel_build", "Enables or disables building indexes in parallel",
+							 NULL, &hnsw_enable_parallel_build,
+							 false, PGC_USERSET, 0, NULL, NULL, NULL);
 }
 
 /*
@@ -108,8 +83,8 @@ hnswcostestimate(PlannerInfo *root, IndexPath *path, double loop_count,
 	List	   *qinfos;
 #endif
 
-	/* Never use index without order */
-	if (path->indexorderbys == NULL)
+	/* Never use index without order or limit */
+	if (path->indexorderbys == NULL || root->limit_tuples < 0)
 	{
 		*indexStartupCost = DBL_MAX;
 		*indexTotalCost = DBL_MAX;
@@ -119,6 +94,20 @@ hnswcostestimate(PlannerInfo *root, IndexPath *path, double loop_count,
 		return;
 	}
 
+	/*
+	 * Do not use index if limit + offset > ef_search unless enable_seqscan =
+	 * off
+	 */
+	if (root->limit_tuples > hnsw_ef_search)
+	{
+		*indexStartupCost = 1.0e10 - 1;
+		*indexTotalCost = 1.0e10 - 1;
+		*indexSelectivity = 0;
+		*indexCorrelation = 0;
+		*indexPages = 0;
+		return;
+	}
+
 	MemSet(&costs, 0, sizeof(costs));
 
 	index = index_open(path->indexinfo->indexoid, NoLock);

src/hnsw.h

@@ -6,9 +6,9 @@
 #include "access/generic_xlog.h"
 #include "access/parallel.h"
 #include "access/reloptions.h"
+#include "lib/ilist.h"
 #include "nodes/execnodes.h"
 #include "port.h"				/* for random() */
-#include "utils/relptr.h"
 #include "utils/sampling.h"
 #include "vector.h"
 
@@ -96,62 +96,33 @@
 /* Ensure fits on page and in uint8 */
 #define HnswGetMaxLevel(m) Min(((BLCKSZ - MAXALIGN(SizeOfPageHeaderData) - MAXALIGN(sizeof(HnswPageOpaqueData)) - offsetof(HnswNeighborTupleData, indextids) - sizeof(ItemIdData)) / (sizeof(ItemPointerData)) / (m)) - 2, 255)
 
-#define HnswGetValue(base, element) PointerGetDatum(HnswPtrAccess(base, (element)->value))
-
-#if PG_VERSION_NUM < 140005
-#define relptr_offset(rp) ((rp).relptr_off - 1)
-#endif
-
-/* Pointer macros */
-#define HnswPtrAccess(base, hp) ((base) == NULL ? (hp).ptr : relptr_access(base, (hp).relptr))
-#define HnswPtrStore(base, hp, value) ((base) == NULL ? (void) ((hp).ptr = (value)) : (void) relptr_store(base, (hp).relptr, value))
-#define HnswPtrIsNull(base, hp) ((base) == NULL ? (hp).ptr == NULL : relptr_is_null((hp).relptr))
-#define HnswPtrEqual(base, hp1, hp2) ((base) == NULL ? (hp1).ptr == (hp2).ptr : relptr_offset((hp1).relptr) == relptr_offset((hp2).relptr))
-
-/* For code paths dedicated to each type */
-#define HnswPtrPointer(hp) (hp).ptr
-#define HnswPtrOffset(hp) relptr_offset((hp).relptr)
+#define HnswGetNeighbors(element, lc) (AssertMacro((element)->level >= (lc)), &(element)->neighbors[lc])
 
 /* Variables */
 extern int	hnsw_ef_search;
-extern int	hnsw_lock_tranche_id;
-
-typedef struct HnswElementData HnswElementData;
-typedef struct HnswNeighborArray HnswNeighborArray;
-
-#define HnswPtrDeclare(type, relptrtype, ptrtype) \
-	relptr_declare(type, relptrtype); \
-	typedef union { type *ptr; relptrtype relptr; } ptrtype;
-
-/* Pointers that can be absolute or relative */
-/* Use char for DatumPtr so works with Pointer */
-HnswPtrDeclare(HnswElementData, HnswElementRelptr, HnswElementPtr);
-HnswPtrDeclare(HnswNeighborArray, HnswNeighborArrayRelptr, HnswNeighborArrayPtr);
-HnswPtrDeclare(HnswNeighborArrayPtr, HnswNeighborsRelptr, HnswNeighborsPtr);
-HnswPtrDeclare(char, DatumRelptr, DatumPtr);
+extern bool hnsw_enable_parallel_build;
 
 typedef struct HnswElementData
 {
-	HnswElementPtr next;
+	slist_node	next;
 	ItemPointerData heaptids[HNSW_HEAPTIDS];
 	uint8		heaptidsLength;
 	uint8		level;
 	uint8		deleted;
 	uint32		hash;
-	HnswNeighborsPtr neighbors;
+	struct HnswNeighborArray *neighbors;
 	BlockNumber blkno;
 	OffsetNumber offno;
 	OffsetNumber neighborOffno;
 	BlockNumber neighborPage;
-	DatumPtr	value;
-	LWLock		lock;
+	Datum		value;
 }			HnswElementData;
 
 typedef HnswElementData * HnswElement;
 
 typedef struct HnswCandidate
 {
-	HnswElementPtr element;
+	HnswElement element;
 	float		distance;
 	bool		closer;
 }			HnswCandidate;
@@ -160,7 +131,7 @@ typedef struct HnswNeighborArray
 {
 	int			length;
 	bool		closerSet;
-	HnswCandidate items[FLEXIBLE_ARRAY_MEMBER];
+	HnswCandidate *items;
 }			HnswNeighborArray;
 
 typedef struct HnswPairingHeapNode
@@ -179,31 +150,27 @@ typedef struct HnswOptions
 
 typedef struct HnswGraph
 {
-	/* Graph state */
-	slock_t		lock;
-	HnswElementPtr head;
-	double		indtuples;
-
-	/* Entry state */
-	LWLock		entryLock;
-	HnswElementPtr entryPoint;
-
-	/* Allocations state */
-	LWLock		allocatorLock;
+	slist_head	elements;
+	HnswElement entryPoint;
 	long		memoryUsed;
 	long		memoryTotal;
-
-	/* Flushed state */
-	LWLock		flushLock;
 	bool		flushed;
+	double		indtuples;
 }			HnswGraph;
 
+typedef struct HnswSpool
+{
+	Relation	heap;
+	Relation	index;
+}			HnswSpool;
+
 typedef struct HnswShared
 {
 	/* Immutable state */
 	Oid			heaprelid;
 	Oid			indexrelid;
 	bool		isconcurrent;
+	int			scantuplesortstates;
 
 	/* Worker progress */
 	ConditionVariable workersdonecv;
@@ -232,15 +199,8 @@ typedef struct HnswLeader
 	int			nparticipanttuplesorts;
 	HnswShared *hnswshared;
 	Snapshot	snapshot;
-	char	   *hnswarea;
 }			HnswLeader;
 
-typedef struct HnswAllocator
-{
-	void	   *(*alloc) (Size size, void *state);
-	void	   *state;
-}			HnswAllocator;
-
 typedef struct HnswBuildState
 {
 	/* Info */
@@ -273,12 +233,10 @@ typedef struct HnswBuildState
 	/* Memory */
 	MemoryContext graphCtx;
 	MemoryContext tmpCtx;
-	HnswAllocator allocator;
 
 	/* Parallel builds */
 	HnswLeader *hnswleader;
 	HnswShared *hnswshared;
-	char	   *hnswarea;
 }			HnswBuildState;
 
 typedef struct HnswMetaPageData
@@ -377,24 +335,23 @@ bool		HnswNormValue(FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, Datum *value, Vector * re
 Buffer		HnswNewBuffer(Relation index, ForkNumber forkNum);
 void		HnswInitPage(Buffer buf, Page page);
 void		HnswInit(void);
-List	   *HnswSearchLayer(char *base, Datum q, List *ep, int ef, int lc, Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, int m, bool inserting, HnswElement skipElement);
+List	   *HnswSearchLayer(Datum q, List *ep, int ef, int lc, Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, int m, bool inserting, HnswElement skipElement);
 HnswElement HnswGetEntryPoint(Relation index);
 void		HnswGetMetaPageInfo(Relation index, int *m, HnswElement * entryPoint);
-void	   *HnswAlloc(HnswAllocator * allocator, Size size);
-HnswElement HnswInitElement(char *base, ItemPointer tid, int m, double ml, int maxLevel, HnswAllocator * alloc);
+HnswElement HnswInitElement(ItemPointer tid, int m, double ml, int maxLevel);
 HnswElement HnswInitElementFromBlock(BlockNumber blkno, OffsetNumber offno);
-void		HnswFindElementNeighbors(char *base, HnswElement element, HnswElement entryPoint, Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, int m, int efConstruction, bool existing);
-HnswCandidate *HnswEntryCandidate(char *base, HnswElement em, Datum q, Relation rel, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, bool loadVec);
+void		HnswInsertElement(HnswElement element, HnswElement entryPoint, Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, int m, int efConstruction, bool existing);
+HnswCandidate *HnswEntryCandidate(HnswElement em, Datum q, Relation rel, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, bool loadVec);
 void		HnswUpdateMetaPage(Relation index, int updateEntry, HnswElement entryPoint, BlockNumber insertPage, ForkNumber forkNum, bool building);
-void		HnswSetNeighborTuple(char *base, HnswNeighborTuple ntup, HnswElement e, int m);
+void		HnswSetNeighborTuple(HnswNeighborTuple ntup, HnswElement e, int m);
 void		HnswAddHeapTid(HnswElement element, ItemPointer heaptid);
-void		HnswInitNeighbors(char *base, HnswElement element, int m, HnswAllocator * alloc);
-bool		HnswInsertTupleOnDisk(Relation index, Datum value, Datum *values, bool *isnull, ItemPointer heap_tid, Relation heapRel, bool building);
-void		HnswUpdateNeighborsOnDisk(Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, HnswElement e, int m, bool checkExisting, bool building);
+void		HnswInitNeighbors(HnswElement element, int m);
+bool		HnswInsertTuple(Relation index, Datum *values, bool *isnull, ItemPointer heap_tid, Relation heapRel, bool building);
+void		HnswUpdateNeighborPages(Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, HnswElement e, int m, bool checkExisting, bool building);
 void		HnswLoadElementFromTuple(HnswElement element, HnswElementTuple etup, bool loadHeaptids, bool loadVec);
 void		HnswLoadElement(HnswElement element, float *distance, Datum *q, Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, bool loadVec);
-void		HnswSetElementTuple(char *base, HnswElementTuple etup, HnswElement element);
-void		HnswUpdateConnection(char *base, HnswElement element, HnswCandidate * hc, int m, int lc, int *updateIdx, Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation);
+void		HnswSetElementTuple(HnswElementTuple etup, HnswElement element);
+void		HnswUpdateConnection(HnswElement element, HnswCandidate * hc, int m, int lc, int *updateIdx, Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation);
 void		HnswLoadNeighbors(HnswElement element, Relation index, int m);
 PGDLLEXPORT void HnswParallelBuildMain(dsm_segment *seg, shm_toc *toc);
 
@@ -414,16 +371,6 @@ void		hnswrescan(IndexScanDesc scan, ScanKey keys, int nkeys, ScanKey orderbys,
 bool		hnswgettuple(IndexScanDesc scan, ScanDirection dir);
 void		hnswendscan(IndexScanDesc scan);
 
-static inline HnswNeighborArray *
-HnswGetNeighbors(char *base, HnswElement element, int lc)
-{
-	HnswNeighborArrayPtr *neighborList = HnswPtrAccess(base, element->neighbors);
-
-	Assert(element->level >= lc);
-
-	return HnswPtrAccess(base, neighborList[lc]);
-}
-
 /* Hash tables */
 typedef struct TidHashEntry
 {
@@ -451,17 +398,4 @@ typedef struct PointerHashEntry
 #define SH_DECLARE
 #include "lib/simplehash.h"
 
-typedef struct OffsetHashEntry
-{
-	Size		offset;
-	char		status;
-}			OffsetHashEntry;
-
-#define SH_PREFIX offsethash
-#define SH_ELEMENT_TYPE OffsetHashEntry
-#define SH_KEY_TYPE Size
-#define SH_SCOPE extern
-#define SH_DECLARE
-#include "lib/simplehash.h"
-
 #endif

src/hnswbuild.c

@@ -1,39 +1,3 @@
-/*
- * The HNSW build happens in two phases:
- *
- * 1. In-memory phase
- *
- * In this first phase, the graph is held completely in memory. When the graph
- * is fully built, or we run out of memory reserved for the build (determined
- * by maintenance_work_mem), we materialize the graph to disk (see
- * FlushPages()), and switch to the on-disk phase.
- *
- * In a parallel build, a large contiguous chunk of shared memory is allocated
- * to hold the graph. Each worker process has its own HnswBuildState struct in
- * private memory, which contains information that doesn't change throughout
- * the build, and pointers to the shared structs in shared memory. The shared
- * memory area is mapped to a different address in each worker process, and
- * 'HnswBuildState.hnswarea' points to the beginning of the shared area in the
- * worker process's address space. All pointers used in the graph are
- * "relative pointers", stored as an offset from 'hnswarea'.
- *
- * Each element is protected by an LWLock. It must be held when reading or
- * modifying the element's neighbors or 'heaptids'.
- *
- * In a non-parallel build, the graph is held in backend-private memory. All
- * the elements are allocated in a dedicated memory context, 'graphCtx', and
- * the pointers used in the graph are regular pointers.
- *
- * 2. On-disk phase
- *
- * In the on-disk phase, the index is built by inserting each vector to the
- * index one by one, just like on INSERT. The only difference is that we don't
- * WAL-log the individual inserts. If the graph fit completely in memory and
- * was fully built in the in-memory phase, the on-disk phase is skipped.
- *
- * After we have finished building the graph, we perform one more scan through
- * the index and write all the pages to the WAL.
- */
 #include "postgres.h"
 
 #include <math.h>
@@ -90,8 +54,7 @@
 #endif
 
 #define PARALLEL_KEY_HNSW_SHARED		UINT64CONST(0xA000000000000001)
-#define PARALLEL_KEY_HNSW_AREA			UINT64CONST(0xA000000000000002)
-#define PARALLEL_KEY_QUERY_TEXT			UINT64CONST(0xA000000000000003)
+#define PARALLEL_KEY_QUERY_TEXT			UINT64CONST(0xA000000000000002)
 
 #if PG_VERSION_NUM < 130000
 #define GENERATIONCHUNK_RAWSIZE (SIZEOF_SIZE_T + SIZEOF_VOID_P * 2)
@@ -172,11 +135,9 @@ CreateElementPages(HnswBuildState * buildstate)
 	HnswElementTuple etup;
 	HnswNeighborTuple ntup;
 	BlockNumber insertPage;
-	HnswElement entryPoint;
 	Buffer		buf;
 	Page		page;
-	HnswElementPtr iter = buildstate->graph->head;
-	char	   *base = buildstate->hnswarea;
+	slist_iter	iter;
 
 	/* Calculate sizes */
 	etupAllocSize = BLCKSZ;
@@ -191,22 +152,18 @@ CreateElementPages(HnswBuildState * buildstate)
 	page = BufferGetPage(buf);
 	HnswInitPage(buf, page);
 
-	while (!HnswPtrIsNull(base, iter))
+	slist_foreach(iter, &buildstate->graph->elements)
 	{
-		HnswElement element = HnswPtrAccess(base, iter);
+		HnswElement element = slist_container(HnswElementData, next, iter.cur);
 		Size		etupSize;
 		Size		ntupSize;
 		Size		combinedSize;
-		void	   *valuePtr = HnswPtrAccess(base, element->value);
-
-		/* Update iterator */
-		iter = element->next;
 
 		/* Zero memory for each element */
 		MemSet(etup, 0, etupAllocSize);
 
 		/* Calculate sizes */
-		etupSize = HNSW_ELEMENT_TUPLE_SIZE(VARSIZE_ANY(valuePtr));
+		etupSize = HNSW_ELEMENT_TUPLE_SIZE(VARSIZE_ANY(DatumGetPointer(element->value)));
 		ntupSize = HNSW_NEIGHBOR_TUPLE_SIZE(element->level, buildstate->m);
 		combinedSize = etupSize + ntupSize + sizeof(ItemIdData);
 
@@ -214,7 +171,7 @@ CreateElementPages(HnswBuildState * buildstate)
 		if (etupSize > etupAllocSize)
 			elog(ERROR, "index tuple too large");
 
-		HnswSetElementTuple(base, etup, element);
+		HnswSetElementTuple(etup, element);
 
 		/* Keep element and neighbors on the same page if possible */
 		if (PageGetFreeSpace(page) < etupSize || (combinedSize <= maxSize && PageGetFreeSpace(page) < combinedSize))
@@ -255,8 +212,7 @@ CreateElementPages(HnswBuildState * buildstate)
 	MarkBufferDirty(buf);
 	UnlockReleaseBuffer(buf);
 
-	entryPoint = HnswPtrAccess(base, buildstate->graph->entryPoint);
-	HnswUpdateMetaPage(index, HNSW_UPDATE_ENTRY_ALWAYS, entryPoint, insertPage, forkNum, true);
+	HnswUpdateMetaPage(index, HNSW_UPDATE_ENTRY_ALWAYS, buildstate->graph->entryPoint, insertPage, forkNum, true);
 
 	pfree(etup);
 	pfree(ntup);
@@ -271,23 +227,19 @@ CreateNeighborPages(HnswBuildState * buildstate)
 	Relation	index = buildstate->index;
 	ForkNumber	forkNum = buildstate->forkNum;
 	int			m = buildstate->m;
-	HnswElementPtr iter = buildstate->graph->head;
-	char	   *base = buildstate->hnswarea;
+	slist_iter	iter;
 	HnswNeighborTuple ntup;
 
 	/* Allocate once */
 	ntup = palloc0(BLCKSZ);
 
-	while (!HnswPtrIsNull(base, iter))
+	slist_foreach(iter, &buildstate->graph->elements)
 	{
-		HnswElement e = HnswPtrAccess(base, iter);
+		HnswElement e = slist_container(HnswElementData, next, iter.cur);
 		Buffer		buf;
 		Page		page;
 		Size		ntupSize = HNSW_NEIGHBOR_TUPLE_SIZE(e->level, m);
 
-		/* Update iterator */
-		iter = e->next;
-
 		/* Can take a while, so ensure we can interrupt */
 		/* Needs to be called when no buffer locks are held */
 		CHECK_FOR_INTERRUPTS();
@@ -296,7 +248,7 @@ CreateNeighborPages(HnswBuildState * buildstate)
 		LockBuffer(buf, BUFFER_LOCK_EXCLUSIVE);
 		page = BufferGetPage(buf);
 
-		HnswSetNeighborTuple(base, ntup, e, m);
+		HnswSetNeighborTuple(ntup, e, m);
 
 		if (!PageIndexTupleOverwrite(page, e->neighborOffno, (Item) ntup, ntupSize))
 			elog(ERROR, "failed to add index item to \"%s\"", RelationGetRelationName(index));
@@ -309,6 +261,24 @@ CreateNeighborPages(HnswBuildState * buildstate)
 	pfree(ntup);
 }
 
+#ifdef HNSW_MEMORY
+/*
+ * Show memory usage
+ */
+static void
+ShowMemoryUsage(HnswBuildState * buildstate)
+{
+#if PG_VERSION_NUM >= 130000
+	elog(INFO, "graph memory: %zu MB, total memory: %zu MB",
+		 MemoryContextMemAllocated(buildstate->graphCtx, false) / (1024 * 1024),
+		 MemoryContextMemAllocated(CurrentMemoryContext, true) / (1024 * 1024));
+#else
+	MemoryContextStats(CurrentMemoryContext);
+	elog(INFO, "estimated memory: %zu MB", buildstate->memoryUsed / (1024 * 1024));
+#endif
+}
+#endif
+
 /*
  * Flush pages
  */
@@ -316,7 +286,7 @@ static void
 FlushPages(HnswBuildState * buildstate)
 {
 #ifdef HNSW_MEMORY
-	elog(INFO, "memory: %zu MB", buildstate->graph->memoryUsed / (1024 * 1024));
+	ShowMemoryUsage(buildstate);
 #endif
 
 	CreateMetaPage(buildstate);
@@ -327,172 +297,66 @@ FlushPages(HnswBuildState * buildstate)
 	MemoryContextReset(buildstate->graphCtx);
 }
 
+#if PG_VERSION_NUM < 130000
 /*
- * Add a heap TID to an existing element
+ * Get the memory used by an element
  */
-static bool
-AddDuplicateInMemory(HnswElement element, HnswElement dup)
+static long
+HnswElementMemory(HnswElement e, int m)
 {
-	LWLockAcquire(&dup->lock, LW_EXCLUSIVE);
+	long		elementSize = sizeof(HnswElementData);
 
-	if (dup->heaptidsLength == HNSW_HEAPTIDS)
-	{
-		LWLockRelease(&dup->lock);
-		return false;
-	}
-
-	HnswAddHeapTid(dup, &element->heaptids[0]);
-
-	LWLockRelease(&dup->lock);
-
-	return true;
+	elementSize += sizeof(HnswNeighborArray) * (e->level + 1);
+	elementSize += sizeof(HnswCandidate) * (m * (e->level + 2));
+	elementSize += VARSIZE_ANY(DatumGetPointer(e->value));
+	/* Each allocation has a chunk header */
+	elementSize += (e->level + 4) * GENERATIONCHUNK_RAWSIZE;
+	/* Add an extra 5% for alignment and other overhead */
+	return elementSize * 1.05;
 }
+#endif
 
 /*
  * Find duplicate element
  */
 static bool
-FindDuplicateInMemory(char *base, HnswElement element)
+HnswFindDuplicateInMemory(HnswElement element)
 {
-	HnswNeighborArray *neighbors = HnswGetNeighbors(base, element, 0);
-	Datum		value = HnswGetValue(base, element);
+	HnswNeighborArray *neighbors = HnswGetNeighbors(element, 0);
 
 	for (int i = 0; i < neighbors->length; i++)
 	{
 		HnswCandidate *neighbor = &neighbors->items[i];
-		HnswElement neighborElement = HnswPtrAccess(base, neighbor->element);
-		Datum		neighborValue = HnswGetValue(base, neighborElement);
 
 		/* Exit early since ordered by distance */
-		if (!datumIsEqual(value, neighborValue, false, -1))
+		if (!datumIsEqual(element->value, neighbor->element->value, false, -1))
 			return false;
 
 		/* Check for space */
-		if (AddDuplicateInMemory(element, neighborElement))
+		if (neighbor->element->heaptidsLength < HNSW_HEAPTIDS)
+		{
+			HnswAddHeapTid(neighbor->element, &element->heaptids[0]);
 			return true;
+		}
 	}
 
 	return false;
 }
 
 /*
- * Add to element list
+ * Insert tuple into in-memory graph
  */
-static void
-AddElementInMemory(char *base, HnswGraph * graph, HnswElement element)
-{
-	SpinLockAcquire(&graph->lock);
-	element->next = graph->head;
-	HnswPtrStore(base, graph->head, element);
-	SpinLockRelease(&graph->lock);
-}
-
-/*
- * Update neighbors
- */
-static void
-UpdateNeighborsInMemory(char *base, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, HnswElement e, int m)
-{
-	for (int lc = e->level; lc >= 0; lc--)
-	{
-		int			lm = HnswGetLayerM(m, lc);
-		HnswNeighborArray *neighbors = HnswGetNeighbors(base, e, lc);
-
-		for (int i = 0; i < neighbors->length; i++)
-		{
-			HnswCandidate *hc = &neighbors->items[i];
-			HnswElement neighborElement = HnswPtrAccess(base, hc->element);
-
-			/* Keep scan-build happy on Mac x86-64 */
-			Assert(neighborElement);
-
-			/* Use element for lock instead of hc since hc can be replaced */
-			LWLockAcquire(&neighborElement->lock, LW_EXCLUSIVE);
-			HnswUpdateConnection(base, e, hc, lm, lc, NULL, NULL, procinfo, collation);
-			LWLockRelease(&neighborElement->lock);
-		}
-	}
-}
-
-/*
- * Update graph in memory
- */
-static void
-UpdateGraphInMemory(FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, HnswElement element, int m, int efConstruction, HnswElement entryPoint, HnswBuildState * buildstate)
-{
-	HnswGraph  *graph = buildstate->graph;
-	char	   *base = buildstate->hnswarea;
-
-	/* Look for duplicate */
-	if (FindDuplicateInMemory(base, element))
-		return;
-
-	/* Add element */
-	AddElementInMemory(base, graph, element);
-
-	/* Update neighbors */
-	UpdateNeighborsInMemory(base, procinfo, collation, element, m);
-
-	/* Update entry point if needed (already have lock) */
-	if (entryPoint == NULL || element->level > entryPoint->level)
-		HnswPtrStore(base, graph->entryPoint, element);
-}
-
-/*
- * Insert tuple in memory
- */
-static void
-InsertTupleInMemory(HnswBuildState * buildstate, HnswElement element)
+static bool
+InsertTupleInMemory(Relation index, Datum *values, ItemPointer heaptid, HnswBuildState * buildstate)
 {
 	FmgrInfo   *procinfo = buildstate->procinfo;
 	Oid			collation = buildstate->collation;
 	HnswGraph  *graph = buildstate->graph;
-	HnswElement entryPoint;
-	LWLock	   *entryLock = &graph->entryLock;
+	HnswElement entryPoint = graph->entryPoint;
 	int			efConstruction = buildstate->efConstruction;
 	int			m = buildstate->m;
-	char	   *base = buildstate->hnswarea;
-
-	/* Get entry point */
-	LWLockAcquire(entryLock, LW_SHARED);
-	entryPoint = HnswPtrAccess(base, graph->entryPoint);
-
-	/* Prevent concurrent inserts when likely updating entry point */
-	if (entryPoint == NULL || element->level > entryPoint->level)
-	{
-		/* Release shared lock */
-		LWLockRelease(entryLock);
-
-		/* Get exclusive lock */
-		LWLockAcquire(entryLock, LW_EXCLUSIVE);
-
-		/* Get latest entry point after lock is acquired */
-		entryPoint = HnswPtrAccess(base, graph->entryPoint);
-	}
-
-	/* Find neighbors for element */
-	HnswFindElementNeighbors(base, element, entryPoint, NULL, procinfo, collation, m, efConstruction, false);
-
-	/* Update graph in memory */
-	UpdateGraphInMemory(procinfo, collation, element, m, efConstruction, entryPoint, buildstate);
-
-	/* Release entry lock */
-	LWLockRelease(entryLock);
-}
-
-/*
- * Insert tuple
- */
-static bool
-InsertTuple(Relation index, Datum *values, bool *isnull, ItemPointer heaptid, HnswBuildState * buildstate)
-{
-	HnswGraph  *graph = buildstate->graph;
+	MemoryContext oldCtx;
 	HnswElement element;
-	HnswAllocator *allocator = &buildstate->allocator;
-	Size		valueSize;
-	Pointer		valuePtr;
-	LWLock	   *flushLock = &graph->flushLock;
-	char	   *base = buildstate->hnswarea;
 
 	/* Detoast once for all calls */
 	Datum		value = PointerGetDatum(PG_DETOAST_DATUM(values[0]));
@@ -500,83 +364,73 @@ InsertTuple(Relation index, Datum *values, bool *isnull, ItemPointer heaptid, Hn
 	/* Normalize if needed */
 	if (buildstate->normprocinfo != NULL)
 	{
-		if (!HnswNormValue(buildstate->normprocinfo, buildstate->collation, &value, buildstate->normvec))
+		if (!HnswNormValue(buildstate->normprocinfo, collation, &value, buildstate->normvec))
 			return false;
 	}
 
-	/* Get datum size */
-	valueSize = VARSIZE_ANY(DatumGetPointer(value));
+	/* Allocate element in graph memory context */
+	oldCtx = MemoryContextSwitchTo(buildstate->graphCtx);
+	element = HnswInitElement(heaptid, buildstate->m, buildstate->ml, buildstate->maxLevel);
+	element->value = datumCopy(value, false, -1);
+	MemoryContextSwitchTo(oldCtx);
 
-	/* Ensure graph not flushed when inserting */
-	LWLockAcquire(flushLock, LW_SHARED);
+	/* Update memory usage */
+#if PG_VERSION_NUM >= 130000
+	graph->memoryUsed = MemoryContextMemAllocated(buildstate->graphCtx, false);
+#else
+	graph->memoryUsed += HnswElementMemory(element, buildstate->m);
+#endif
 
-	/* Are we in the on-disk phase? */
-	if (graph->flushed)
+	/* Insert element in graph */
+	HnswInsertElement(element, entryPoint, NULL, procinfo, collation, m, efConstruction, false);
+
+	/* Look for duplicate */
+	if (HnswFindDuplicateInMemory(element))
 	{
-		LWLockRelease(flushLock);
-
-		return HnswInsertTupleOnDisk(index, value, values, isnull, heaptid, buildstate->heap, true);
+		/* No need to free element since memory unlikely to be reallocated */
+		return true;
 	}
 
-	/*
-	 * In a parallel build, the HnswElement is allocated from the shared
-	 * memory area, so we need to coordinate with other processes.
-	 */
-	LWLockAcquire(&graph->allocatorLock, LW_EXCLUSIVE);
+	/* Add element */
+	slist_push_head(&graph->elements, &element->next);
 
-	/*
-	 * Check that we have enough memory available for the new element now that
-	 * we have the allocator lock, and flush pages if needed.
-	 */
-	if (graph->memoryUsed >= graph->memoryTotal)
+	/* Update neighbors */
+	for (int lc = element->level; lc >= 0; lc--)
 	{
-		LWLockRelease(&graph->allocatorLock);
+		int			lm = HnswGetLayerM(m, lc);
+		HnswNeighborArray *neighbors = HnswGetNeighbors(element, lc);
 
-		LWLockRelease(flushLock);
-		LWLockAcquire(flushLock, LW_EXCLUSIVE);
-
-		if (!graph->flushed)
-		{
-			ereport(NOTICE,
-					(errmsg("hnsw graph no longer fits into maintenance_work_mem after " INT64_FORMAT " tuples", (int64) graph->indtuples),
-					 errdetail("Building will take significantly more time."),
-					 errhint("Increase maintenance_work_mem to speed up builds.")));
-
-			FlushPages(buildstate);
-		}
-
-		LWLockRelease(flushLock);
-
-		return HnswInsertTupleOnDisk(index, value, values, isnull, heaptid, buildstate->heap, true);
+		for (int i = 0; i < neighbors->length; i++)
+			HnswUpdateConnection(element, &neighbors->items[i], lm, lc, NULL, NULL, procinfo, collation);
 	}
 
-	/* Ok, we can proceed to allocate the element */
-	element = HnswInitElement(base, heaptid, buildstate->m, buildstate->ml, buildstate->maxLevel, allocator);
-	valuePtr = HnswAlloc(allocator, valueSize);
-
-	/*
-	 * We have now allocated the space needed for the element, so we don't
-	 * need the allocator lock anymore. Release it and initialize the rest of
-	 * the element.
-	 */
-	LWLockRelease(&graph->allocatorLock);
-
-	/* Copy the datum */
-	memcpy(valuePtr, DatumGetPointer(value), valueSize);
-	HnswPtrStore(base, element->value, valuePtr);
-
-	/* Create a lock for the element */
-	LWLockInitialize(&element->lock, hnsw_lock_tranche_id);
-
-	/* Insert tuple */
-	InsertTupleInMemory(buildstate, element);
-
-	/* Release flush lock */
-	LWLockRelease(flushLock);
+	/* Update entry point if needed */
+	if (entryPoint == NULL || element->level > entryPoint->level)
+		graph->entryPoint = element;
 
 	return true;
 }
 
+/*
+ * Acquire a lock if needed
+ */
+static inline void
+HnswLockAcquire(HnswShared * hnswshared)
+{
+	if (hnswshared)
+		SpinLockAcquire(&hnswshared->mutex);
+}
+
+/*
+ * Release a lock if needed
+ */
+static inline void
+HnswLockRelease(HnswShared * hnswshared)
+{
+	if (hnswshared)
+		SpinLockRelease(&hnswshared->mutex);
+}
+
 /*
  * Callback for table_index_build_scan
  */
@@ -586,7 +440,9 @@ BuildCallback(Relation index, CALLBACK_ITEM_POINTER, Datum *values,
 {
 	HnswBuildState *buildstate = (HnswBuildState *) state;
 	HnswGraph  *graph = buildstate->graph;
+	HnswShared *hnswshared = buildstate->hnswshared;
 	MemoryContext oldCtx;
+	bool		inserted;
 
 #if PG_VERSION_NUM < 130000
 	ItemPointer tid = &hup->t_self;
@@ -596,16 +452,31 @@ BuildCallback(Relation index, CALLBACK_ITEM_POINTER, Datum *values,
 	if (isnull[0])
 		return;
 
-	/* Use memory context */
+	/* Flush pages if needed */
+	if (!graph->flushed && graph->memoryUsed >= graph->memoryTotal)
+	{
+		ereport(NOTICE,
+				(errmsg("hnsw graph no longer fits into maintenance_work_mem after " INT64_FORMAT " tuples", (int64) graph->indtuples),
+				 errdetail("Building will take significantly more time."),
+				 errhint("Increase maintenance_work_mem to speed up builds.")));
+
+		FlushPages(buildstate);
+	}
+
 	oldCtx = MemoryContextSwitchTo(buildstate->tmpCtx);
 
 	/* Insert tuple */
-	if (InsertTuple(index, values, isnull, tid, buildstate))
+	if (graph->flushed)
+		inserted = HnswInsertTuple(index, values, isnull, tid, buildstate->heap, true);
+	else
+		inserted = InsertTupleInMemory(index, values, tid, buildstate);
+
+	/* Update progress */
+	if (inserted)
 	{
-		/* Update progress */
-		SpinLockAcquire(&graph->lock);
+		HnswLockAcquire(hnswshared);
 		UpdateProgress(PROGRESS_CREATEIDX_TUPLES_DONE, ++graph->indtuples);
-		SpinLockRelease(&graph->lock);
+		HnswLockRelease(hnswshared);
 	}
 
 	/* Reset memory context */
@@ -617,59 +488,14 @@ BuildCallback(Relation index, CALLBACK_ITEM_POINTER, Datum *values,
  * Initialize the graph
  */
 static void
-InitGraph(HnswGraph * graph, char *base, long memoryTotal)
+InitGraph(HnswGraph * graph)
 {
-	HnswPtrStore(base, graph->head, (HnswElement) NULL);
-	HnswPtrStore(base, graph->entryPoint, (HnswElement) NULL);
+	slist_init(&graph->elements);
+	graph->entryPoint = NULL;
 	graph->memoryUsed = 0;
-	graph->memoryTotal = memoryTotal;
+	graph->memoryTotal = maintenance_work_mem * 1024L;
 	graph->flushed = false;
 	graph->indtuples = 0;
-	SpinLockInit(&graph->lock);
-	LWLockInitialize(&graph->entryLock, hnsw_lock_tranche_id);
-	LWLockInitialize(&graph->allocatorLock, hnsw_lock_tranche_id);
-	LWLockInitialize(&graph->flushLock, hnsw_lock_tranche_id);
-}
-
-/*
- * Initialize an allocator
- */
-static void
-InitAllocator(HnswAllocator * allocator, void *(*alloc) (Size size, void *state), void *state)
-{
-	allocator->alloc = alloc;
-	allocator->state = state;
-}
-
-/*
- * Memory context allocator
- */
-static void *
-HnswMemoryContextAlloc(Size size, void *state)
-{
-	HnswBuildState *buildstate = (HnswBuildState *) state;
-	void	   *chunk = MemoryContextAlloc(buildstate->graphCtx, size);
-
-#if PG_VERSION_NUM >= 130000
-	buildstate->graphData.memoryUsed = MemoryContextMemAllocated(buildstate->graphCtx, false);
-#else
-	buildstate->graphData.memoryUsed += MAXALIGN(size);
-#endif
-
-	return chunk;
-}
-
-/*
- * Shared memory allocator
- */
-static void *
-HnswSharedMemoryAlloc(Size size, void *state)
-{
-	HnswBuildState *buildstate = (HnswBuildState *) state;
-	void	   *chunk = buildstate->hnswarea + buildstate->graph->memoryUsed;
-
-	buildstate->graph->memoryUsed += MAXALIGN(size);
-	return chunk;
 }
 
 /*
@@ -705,7 +531,7 @@ InitBuildState(HnswBuildState * buildstate, Relation heap, Relation index, Index
 	buildstate->normprocinfo = HnswOptionalProcInfo(index, HNSW_NORM_PROC);
 	buildstate->collation = index->rd_indcollation[0];
 
-	InitGraph(&buildstate->graphData, NULL, maintenance_work_mem * 1024L);
+	InitGraph(&buildstate->graphData);
 	buildstate->graph = &buildstate->graphData;
 	buildstate->ml = HnswGetMl(buildstate->m);
 	buildstate->maxLevel = HnswGetMaxLevel(buildstate->m);
@@ -723,11 +549,8 @@ InitBuildState(HnswBuildState * buildstate, Relation heap, Relation index, Index
 											   "Hnsw build temporary context",
 											   ALLOCSET_DEFAULT_SIZES);
 
-	InitAllocator(&buildstate->allocator, &HnswMemoryContextAlloc, buildstate);
-
 	buildstate->hnswleader = NULL;
 	buildstate->hnswshared = NULL;
-	buildstate->hnswarea = NULL;
 }
 
 /*
@@ -758,7 +581,6 @@ ParallelHeapScan(HnswBuildState * buildstate)
 		if (hnswshared->nparticipantsdone == nparticipanttuplesorts)
 		{
 			buildstate->graph = &hnswshared->graphData;
-			buildstate->hnswarea = buildstate->hnswleader->hnswarea;
 			reltuples = hnswshared->reltuples;
 			SpinLockRelease(&hnswshared->mutex);
 			break;
@@ -778,7 +600,7 @@ ParallelHeapScan(HnswBuildState * buildstate)
  * Perform a worker's portion of a parallel insert
  */
 static void
-HnswParallelScanAndInsert(Relation heapRel, Relation indexRel, HnswShared * hnswshared, char *hnswarea, bool progress)
+HnswParallelScanAndInsert(HnswSpool * hnswspool, HnswShared * hnswshared, bool progress)
 {
 	HnswBuildState buildstate;
 #if PG_VERSION_NUM >= 120000
@@ -790,21 +612,20 @@ HnswParallelScanAndInsert(Relation heapRel, Relation indexRel, HnswShared * hnsw
 	IndexInfo  *indexInfo;
 
 	/* Join parallel scan */
-	indexInfo = BuildIndexInfo(indexRel);
+	indexInfo = BuildIndexInfo(hnswspool->index);
 	indexInfo->ii_Concurrent = hnswshared->isconcurrent;
-	InitBuildState(&buildstate, heapRel, indexRel, indexInfo, MAIN_FORKNUM);
+	InitBuildState(&buildstate, hnswspool->heap, hnswspool->index, indexInfo, MAIN_FORKNUM);
 	buildstate.graph = &hnswshared->graphData;
-	buildstate.hnswarea = hnswarea;
-	InitAllocator(&buildstate.allocator, &HnswSharedMemoryAlloc, &buildstate);
+	buildstate.hnswshared = hnswshared;
 #if PG_VERSION_NUM >= 120000
-	scan = table_beginscan_parallel(heapRel,
+	scan = table_beginscan_parallel(hnswspool->heap,
 									ParallelTableScanFromHnswShared(hnswshared));
-	reltuples = table_index_build_scan(heapRel, indexRel, indexInfo,
+	reltuples = table_index_build_scan(hnswspool->heap, hnswspool->index, indexInfo,
 									   true, progress, BuildCallback,
 									   (void *) &buildstate, scan);
 #else
-	scan = heap_beginscan_parallel(heapRel, &hnswshared->heapdesc);
-	reltuples = IndexBuildHeapScan(heapRel, indexRel, indexInfo,
+	scan = heap_beginscan_parallel(hnswspool->heap, &hnswshared->heapdesc);
+	reltuples = IndexBuildHeapScan(hnswspool->heap, hnswspool->index, indexInfo,
 								   true, BuildCallback,
 								   (void *) &buildstate, scan);
 #endif
@@ -834,8 +655,8 @@ void
 HnswParallelBuildMain(dsm_segment *seg, shm_toc *toc)
 {
 	char	   *sharedquery;
+	HnswSpool  *hnswspool;
 	HnswShared *hnswshared;
-	char	   *hnswarea;
 	Relation	heapRel;
 	Relation	indexRel;
 	LOCKMODE	heapLockmode;
@@ -871,10 +692,13 @@ HnswParallelBuildMain(dsm_segment *seg, shm_toc *toc)
 #endif
 	indexRel = index_open(hnswshared->indexrelid, indexLockmode);
 
-	hnswarea = shm_toc_lookup(toc, PARALLEL_KEY_HNSW_AREA, false);
+	/* Initialize worker's own spool */
+	hnswspool = (HnswSpool *) palloc0(sizeof(HnswSpool));
+	hnswspool->heap = heapRel;
+	hnswspool->index = indexRel;
 
 	/* Perform inserts */
-	HnswParallelScanAndInsert(heapRel, indexRel, hnswshared, hnswarea, false);
+	HnswParallelScanAndInsert(hnswspool, hnswshared, false);
 
 	/* Close relations within worker */
 	index_close(indexRel, indexLockmode);
@@ -929,9 +753,15 @@ static void
 HnswLeaderParticipateAsWorker(HnswBuildState * buildstate)
 {
 	HnswLeader *hnswleader = buildstate->hnswleader;
+	HnswSpool  *leaderworker;
+
+	/* Allocate memory and initialize private spool */
+	leaderworker = (HnswSpool *) palloc0(sizeof(HnswSpool));
+	leaderworker->heap = buildstate->heap;
+	leaderworker->index = buildstate->index;
 
 	/* Perform work common to all participants */
-	HnswParallelScanAndInsert(buildstate->heap, buildstate->index, hnswleader->hnswshared, hnswleader->hnswarea, true);
+	HnswParallelScanAndInsert(leaderworker, hnswleader->hnswshared, true);
 }
 
 /*
@@ -941,12 +771,10 @@ static void
 HnswBeginParallel(HnswBuildState * buildstate, bool isconcurrent, int request)
 {
 	ParallelContext *pcxt;
+	int			scantuplesortstates;
 	Snapshot	snapshot;
 	Size		esthnswshared;
-	Size		esthnswarea;
-	Size		estother;
 	HnswShared *hnswshared;
-	char	   *hnswarea;
 	HnswLeader *hnswleader = (HnswLeader *) palloc0(sizeof(HnswLeader));
 	bool		leaderparticipates = true;
 	int			querylen;
@@ -964,6 +792,8 @@ HnswBeginParallel(HnswBuildState * buildstate, bool isconcurrent, int request)
 	pcxt = CreateParallelContext("vector", "HnswParallelBuildMain", request, true);
 #endif
 
+	scantuplesortstates = leaderparticipates ? request + 1 : request;
+
 	/* Get snapshot for table scan */
 	if (!isconcurrent)
 		snapshot = SnapshotAny;
@@ -973,17 +803,7 @@ HnswBeginParallel(HnswBuildState * buildstate, bool isconcurrent, int request)
 	/* Estimate size of workspaces */
 	esthnswshared = ParallelEstimateShared(buildstate->heap, snapshot);
 	shm_toc_estimate_chunk(&pcxt->estimator, esthnswshared);
-
-	/* Leave space for other objects in shared memory */
-	/* Docker has a default limit of 64 MB for shm_size */
-	/* which happens to be the default value of maintenance_work_mem */
-	esthnswarea = maintenance_work_mem * 1024L;
-	estother = 2 * 1024 * 1024;
-	if (esthnswarea > estother)
-		esthnswarea -= estother;
-
-	shm_toc_estimate_chunk(&pcxt->estimator, esthnswarea);
-	shm_toc_estimate_keys(&pcxt->estimator, 2);
+	shm_toc_estimate_keys(&pcxt->estimator, 1);
 
 	/* Finally, estimate PARALLEL_KEY_QUERY_TEXT space */
 	if (debug_query_string)
@@ -1014,11 +834,16 @@ HnswBeginParallel(HnswBuildState * buildstate, bool isconcurrent, int request)
 	hnswshared->heaprelid = RelationGetRelid(buildstate->heap);
 	hnswshared->indexrelid = RelationGetRelid(buildstate->index);
 	hnswshared->isconcurrent = isconcurrent;
+	hnswshared->scantuplesortstates = scantuplesortstates;
 	ConditionVariableInit(&hnswshared->workersdonecv);
 	SpinLockInit(&hnswshared->mutex);
 	/* Initialize mutable state */
 	hnswshared->nparticipantsdone = 0;
 	hnswshared->reltuples = 0;
+	InitGraph(&hnswshared->graphData);
+	/* TODO Support in-memory builds */
+	hnswshared->graphData.memoryTotal = 0;
+	hnswshared->graphData.flushed = true;
 #if PG_VERSION_NUM >= 120000
 	table_parallelscan_initialize(buildstate->heap,
 								  ParallelTableScanFromHnswShared(hnswshared),
@@ -1027,12 +852,7 @@ HnswBeginParallel(HnswBuildState * buildstate, bool isconcurrent, int request)
 	heap_parallelscan_initialize(&hnswshared->heapdesc, buildstate->heap, snapshot);
 #endif
 
-	hnswarea = (char *) shm_toc_allocate(pcxt->toc, esthnswarea);
-	/* Report less than allocated so never fails */
-	InitGraph(&hnswshared->graphData, hnswarea, esthnswarea - 1024 * 1024);
-
 	shm_toc_insert(pcxt->toc, PARALLEL_KEY_HNSW_SHARED, hnswshared);
-	shm_toc_insert(pcxt->toc, PARALLEL_KEY_HNSW_AREA, hnswarea);
 
 	/* Store query string for workers */
 	if (debug_query_string)
@@ -1052,7 +872,6 @@ HnswBeginParallel(HnswBuildState * buildstate, bool isconcurrent, int request)
 		hnswleader->nparticipanttuplesorts++;
 	hnswleader->hnswshared = hnswshared;
 	hnswleader->snapshot = snapshot;
-	hnswleader->hnswarea = hnswarea;
 
 	/* If no workers were successfully launched, back out (do serial build) */
 	if (pcxt->nworkers_launched == 0)
@@ -1107,12 +926,16 @@ BuildGraph(HnswBuildState * buildstate, ForkNumber forkNum)
 	UpdateProgress(PROGRESS_CREATEIDX_SUBPHASE, PROGRESS_HNSW_PHASE_LOAD);
 
 	/* Calculate parallel workers */
-	if (buildstate->heap != NULL)
+	if (buildstate->heap != NULL && hnsw_enable_parallel_build)
 		parallel_workers = ComputeParallelWorkers(buildstate->heap, buildstate->index);
 
 	/* Attempt to launch parallel worker scan when required */
 	if (parallel_workers > 0)
+	{
+		/* TODO Support in-memory builds */
+		FlushPages(buildstate);
 		HnswBeginParallel(buildstate, buildstate->indexInfo->ii_Concurrent, parallel_workers);
+	}
 
 	/* Add tuples to graph */
 	if (buildstate->heap != NULL)

src/hnswinsert.c

@@ -116,7 +116,7 @@ HnswInsertAppendPage(Relation index, Buffer *nbuf, Page *npage, GenericXLogState
  * Add to element and neighbor pages
  */
 static void
-AddElementOnDisk(Relation index, HnswElement e, int m, BlockNumber insertPage, BlockNumber *updatedInsertPage, bool building)
+WriteNewElementPages(Relation index, HnswElement e, int m, BlockNumber insertPage, BlockNumber *updatedInsertPage, bool building)
 {
 	Buffer		buf;
 	Page		page;
@@ -134,10 +134,9 @@ AddElementOnDisk(Relation index, HnswElement e, int m, BlockNumber insertPage, B
 	OffsetNumber freeOffno = InvalidOffsetNumber;
 	OffsetNumber freeNeighborOffno = InvalidOffsetNumber;
 	BlockNumber newInsertPage = InvalidBlockNumber;
-	char	   *base = NULL;
 
 	/* Calculate sizes */
-	etupSize = HNSW_ELEMENT_TUPLE_SIZE(VARSIZE_ANY(HnswPtrAccess(base, e->value)));
+	etupSize = HNSW_ELEMENT_TUPLE_SIZE(VARSIZE_ANY(DatumGetPointer(e->value)));
 	ntupSize = HNSW_NEIGHBOR_TUPLE_SIZE(e->level, m);
 	combinedSize = etupSize + ntupSize + sizeof(ItemIdData);
 	maxSize = HNSW_MAX_SIZE;
@@ -145,11 +144,11 @@ AddElementOnDisk(Relation index, HnswElement e, int m, BlockNumber insertPage, B
 
 	/* Prepare element tuple */
 	etup = palloc0(etupSize);
-	HnswSetElementTuple(base, etup, e);
+	HnswSetElementTuple(etup, e);
 
 	/* Prepare neighbor tuple */
 	ntup = palloc0(ntupSize);
-	HnswSetNeighborTuple(base, ntup, e, m);
+	HnswSetNeighborTuple(ntup, e, m);
 
 	/* Find a page (or two if needed) to insert the tuples */
 	for (;;)
@@ -339,14 +338,12 @@ ConnectionExists(HnswElement e, HnswNeighborTuple ntup, int startIdx, int lm)
  * Update neighbors
  */
 void
-HnswUpdateNeighborsOnDisk(Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, HnswElement e, int m, bool checkExisting, bool building)
+HnswUpdateNeighborPages(Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, HnswElement e, int m, bool checkExisting, bool building)
 {
-	char	   *base = NULL;
-
 	for (int lc = e->level; lc >= 0; lc--)
 	{
 		int			lm = HnswGetLayerM(m, lc);
-		HnswNeighborArray *neighbors = HnswGetNeighbors(base, e, lc);
+		HnswNeighborArray *neighbors = HnswGetNeighbors(e, lc);
 
 		for (int i = 0; i < neighbors->length; i++)
 		{
@@ -359,12 +356,11 @@ HnswUpdateNeighborsOnDisk(Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, Hns
 			Size		ntupSize;
 			int			idx = -1;
 			int			startIdx;
-			HnswElement neighborElement = HnswPtrAccess(base, hc->element);
-			OffsetNumber offno = neighborElement->neighborOffno;
+			OffsetNumber offno = hc->element->neighborOffno;
 
 			/* Get latest neighbors since they may have changed */
 			/* Do not lock yet since selecting neighbors can take time */
-			HnswLoadNeighbors(neighborElement, index, m);
+			HnswLoadNeighbors(hc->element, index, m);
 
 			/*
 			 * Could improve performance for vacuuming by checking neighbors
@@ -374,14 +370,14 @@ HnswUpdateNeighborsOnDisk(Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, Hns
 			 */
 
 			/* Select neighbors */
-			HnswUpdateConnection(NULL, e, hc, lm, lc, &idx, index, procinfo, collation);
+			HnswUpdateConnection(e, hc, lm, lc, &idx, index, procinfo, collation);
 
 			/* New element was not selected as a neighbor */
 			if (idx == -1)
 				continue;
 
 			/* Register page */
-			buf = ReadBuffer(index, neighborElement->neighborPage);
+			buf = ReadBuffer(index, hc->element->neighborPage);
 			LockBuffer(buf, BUFFER_LOCK_EXCLUSIVE);
 			if (building)
 			{
@@ -400,7 +396,7 @@ HnswUpdateNeighborsOnDisk(Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, Hns
 			ntupSize = ItemIdGetLength(itemid);
 
 			/* Calculate index for update */
-			startIdx = (neighborElement->level - lc) * m;
+			startIdx = (hc->element->level - lc) * m;
 
 			/* Check for existing connection */
 			if (checkExisting && ConnectionExists(e, ntup, startIdx, lm))
@@ -451,7 +447,7 @@ HnswUpdateNeighborsOnDisk(Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, Hns
  * Add a heap TID to an existing element
  */
 static bool
-AddDuplicateOnDisk(Relation index, HnswElement element, HnswElement dup, bool building)
+HnswAddDuplicate(Relation index, HnswElement element, HnswElement dup, bool building)
 {
 	Buffer		buf;
 	Page		page;
@@ -515,23 +511,19 @@ AddDuplicateOnDisk(Relation index, HnswElement element, HnswElement dup, bool bu
  * Find duplicate element
  */
 static bool
-FindDuplicateOnDisk(Relation index, HnswElement element, bool building)
+HnswFindDuplicate(Relation index, HnswElement element, bool building)
 {
-	char	   *base = NULL;
-	HnswNeighborArray *neighbors = HnswGetNeighbors(base, element, 0);
-	Datum		value = HnswGetValue(base, element);
+	HnswNeighborArray *neighbors = HnswGetNeighbors(element, 0);
 
 	for (int i = 0; i < neighbors->length; i++)
 	{
 		HnswCandidate *neighbor = &neighbors->items[i];
-		HnswElement neighborElement = HnswPtrAccess(base, neighbor->element);
-		Datum		neighborValue = HnswGetValue(base, neighborElement);
 
 		/* Exit early since ordered by distance */
-		if (!datumIsEqual(value, neighborValue, false, -1))
+		if (!datumIsEqual(element->value, neighbor->element->value, false, -1))
 			return false;
 
-		if (AddDuplicateOnDisk(index, element, neighborElement, building))
+		if (HnswAddDuplicate(index, element, neighbor->element, building))
 			return true;
 	}
 
@@ -539,26 +531,26 @@ FindDuplicateOnDisk(Relation index, HnswElement element, bool building)
 }
 
 /*
- * Update graph on disk
+ * Write changes to disk
  */
 static void
-UpdateGraphOnDisk(Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, HnswElement element, int m, int efConstruction, HnswElement entryPoint, bool building)
+WriteElement(Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, HnswElement element, int m, int efConstruction, HnswElement entryPoint, bool building)
 {
 	BlockNumber newInsertPage = InvalidBlockNumber;
 
 	/* Look for duplicate */
-	if (FindDuplicateOnDisk(index, element, building))
+	if (HnswFindDuplicate(index, element, building))
 		return;
 
-	/* Add element */
-	AddElementOnDisk(index, element, m, GetInsertPage(index), &newInsertPage, building);
+	/* Write element and neighbor tuples */
+	WriteNewElementPages(index, element, m, GetInsertPage(index), &newInsertPage, building);
 
 	/* Update insert page if needed */
 	if (BlockNumberIsValid(newInsertPage))
 		HnswUpdateMetaPage(index, 0, NULL, newInsertPage, MAIN_FORKNUM, building);
 
 	/* Update neighbors */
-	HnswUpdateNeighborsOnDisk(index, procinfo, collation, element, m, false, building);
+	HnswUpdateNeighborPages(index, procinfo, collation, element, m, false, building);
 
 	/* Update entry point if needed */
 	if (entryPoint == NULL || element->level > entryPoint->level)
@@ -569,8 +561,10 @@ UpdateGraphOnDisk(Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, HnswElement
  * Insert a tuple into the index
  */
 bool
-HnswInsertTupleOnDisk(Relation index, Datum value, Datum *values, bool *isnull, ItemPointer heap_tid, Relation heapRel, bool building)
+HnswInsertTuple(Relation index, Datum *values, bool *isnull, ItemPointer heap_tid, Relation heapRel, bool building)
 {
+	Datum		value;
+	FmgrInfo   *normprocinfo;
 	HnswElement entryPoint;
 	HnswElement element;
 	int			m;
@@ -578,7 +572,17 @@ HnswInsertTupleOnDisk(Relation index, Datum value, Datum *values, bool *isnull,
 	FmgrInfo   *procinfo = index_getprocinfo(index, 1, HNSW_DISTANCE_PROC);
 	Oid			collation = index->rd_indcollation[0];
 	LOCKMODE	lockmode = ShareLock;
-	char	   *base = NULL;
+
+	/* Detoast once for all calls */
+	value = PointerGetDatum(PG_DETOAST_DATUM(values[0]));
+
+	/* Normalize if needed */
+	normprocinfo = HnswOptionalProcInfo(index, HNSW_NORM_PROC);
+	if (normprocinfo != NULL)
+	{
+		if (!HnswNormValue(normprocinfo, collation, &value, NULL))
+			return false;
+	}
 
 	/*
 	 * Get a shared lock. This allows vacuum to ensure no in-flight inserts
@@ -591,8 +595,8 @@ HnswInsertTupleOnDisk(Relation index, Datum value, Datum *values, bool *isnull,
 	HnswGetMetaPageInfo(index, &m, &entryPoint);
 
 	/* Create an element */
-	element = HnswInitElement(base, heap_tid, m, HnswGetMl(m), HnswGetMaxLevel(m), NULL);
-	HnswPtrStore(base, element->value, DatumGetPointer(value));
+	element = HnswInitElement(heap_tid, m, HnswGetMl(m), HnswGetMaxLevel(m));
+	element->value = value;
 
 	/* Prevent concurrent inserts when likely updating entry point */
 	if (entryPoint == NULL || element->level > entryPoint->level)
@@ -608,11 +612,11 @@ HnswInsertTupleOnDisk(Relation index, Datum value, Datum *values, bool *isnull,
 		entryPoint = HnswGetEntryPoint(index);
 	}
 
-	/* Find neighbors for element */
-	HnswFindElementNeighbors(base, element, entryPoint, index, procinfo, collation, m, efConstruction, false);
+	/* Insert element in graph */
+	HnswInsertElement(element, entryPoint, index, procinfo, collation, m, efConstruction, false);
 
-	/* Update graph on disk */
-	UpdateGraphOnDisk(index, procinfo, collation, element, m, efConstruction, entryPoint, building);
+	/* Write to disk */
+	WriteElement(index, procinfo, collation, element, m, efConstruction, entryPoint, building);
 
 	/* Release lock */
 	UnlockPage(index, HNSW_UPDATE_LOCK, lockmode);
@@ -620,30 +624,6 @@ HnswInsertTupleOnDisk(Relation index, Datum value, Datum *values, bool *isnull,
 	return true;
 }
 
-/*
- * Insert a tuple into the index
- */
-static void
-HnswInsertTuple(Relation index, Datum *values, bool *isnull, ItemPointer heap_tid, Relation heapRel)
-{
-	Datum		value;
-	FmgrInfo   *normprocinfo;
-	Oid			collation = index->rd_indcollation[0];
-
-	/* Detoast once for all calls */
-	value = PointerGetDatum(PG_DETOAST_DATUM(values[0]));
-
-	/* Normalize if needed */
-	normprocinfo = HnswOptionalProcInfo(index, HNSW_NORM_PROC);
-	if (normprocinfo != NULL)
-	{
-		if (!HnswNormValue(normprocinfo, collation, &value, NULL))
-			return;
-	}
-
-	HnswInsertTupleOnDisk(index, value, values, isnull, heap_tid, heapRel, false);
-}
-
 /*
  * Insert a tuple into the index
  */
@@ -670,7 +650,7 @@ hnswinsert(Relation index, Datum *values, bool *isnull, ItemPointer heap_tid,
 	oldCtx = MemoryContextSwitchTo(insertCtx);
 
 	/* Insert tuple */
-	HnswInsertTuple(index, values, isnull, heap_tid, heap);
+	HnswInsertTuple(index, values, isnull, heap_tid, heap, false);
 
 	/* Delete memory context */
 	MemoryContextSwitchTo(oldCtx);

src/hnswscan.c

@@ -21,7 +21,6 @@ GetScanItems(IndexScanDesc scan, Datum q)
 	List	   *w;
 	int			m;
 	HnswElement entryPoint;
-	char	   *base = NULL;
 
 	/* Get m and entry point */
 	HnswGetMetaPageInfo(index, &m, &entryPoint);
@@ -29,15 +28,15 @@ GetScanItems(IndexScanDesc scan, Datum q)
 	if (entryPoint == NULL)
 		return NIL;
 
-	ep = list_make1(HnswEntryCandidate(base, entryPoint, q, index, procinfo, collation, false));
+	ep = list_make1(HnswEntryCandidate(entryPoint, q, index, procinfo, collation, false));
 
 	for (int lc = entryPoint->level; lc >= 1; lc--)
 	{
-		w = HnswSearchLayer(base, q, ep, 1, lc, index, procinfo, collation, m, false, NULL);
+		w = HnswSearchLayer(q, ep, 1, lc, index, procinfo, collation, m, false, NULL);
 		ep = w;
 	}
 
-	return HnswSearchLayer(base, q, ep, hnsw_ef_search, 0, index, procinfo, collation, m, false, NULL);
+	return HnswSearchLayer(q, ep, hnsw_ef_search, 0, index, procinfo, collation, m, false, NULL);
 }
 
 /*
@@ -185,19 +184,17 @@ hnswgettuple(IndexScanDesc scan, ScanDirection dir)
 
 	while (list_length(so->w) > 0)
 	{
-		char	   *base = NULL;
 		HnswCandidate *hc = llast(so->w);
-		HnswElement element = HnswPtrAccess(base, hc->element);
 		ItemPointer heaptid;
 
 		/* Move to next element if no valid heap TIDs */
-		if (element->heaptidsLength == 0)
+		if (hc->element->heaptidsLength == 0)
 		{
 			so->w = list_delete_last(so->w);
 			continue;
 		}
 
-		heaptid = &element->heaptids[--element->heaptidsLength];
+		heaptid = &hc->element->heaptids[--hc->element->heaptidsLength];
 
 		MemoryContextSwitchTo(oldCtx);
 

src/hnswutils.c

@@ -84,40 +84,9 @@ hash_pointer(uintptr_t ptr)
 #define SH_DEFINE
 #include "lib/simplehash.h"
 
-/* Needed to include simplehash.h again */
-#if PG_VERSION_NUM < 120000
-#undef SH_EQUAL
-#undef sh_log2
-#undef sh_pow2
-#define sh_log2 offsethash_sh_log2
-#define sh_pow2 offsethash_sh_pow2
-#endif
-
-/* Offset hash table */
-static uint32
-hash_offset(Size offset)
-{
-#if SIZEOF_SIZE_T == 8
-	return murmurhash64((uint64) offset);
-#else
-	return murmurhash32((uint32) offset);
-#endif
-}
-
-#define SH_PREFIX		offsethash
-#define SH_ELEMENT_TYPE	OffsetHashEntry
-#define SH_KEY_TYPE		Size
-#define	SH_KEY			offset
-#define SH_HASH_KEY(tb, key)	hash_offset(key)
-#define SH_EQUAL(tb, a, b)		(a == b)
-#define	SH_SCOPE		extern
-#define SH_DEFINE
-#include "lib/simplehash.h"
-
 typedef union
 {
 	pointerhash_hash *pointers;
-	offsethash_hash *offsets;
 	tidhash_hash *tids;
 }			visited_hash;
 
@@ -219,46 +188,31 @@ HnswInitPage(Buffer buf, Page page)
  * Allocate neighbors
  */
 void
-HnswInitNeighbors(char *base, HnswElement element, int m, HnswAllocator * allocator)
+HnswInitNeighbors(HnswElement element, int m)
 {
 	int			level = element->level;
 
-	HnswNeighborArrayPtr *neighborList = (HnswNeighborArrayPtr *) HnswAlloc(allocator, sizeof(HnswNeighborArrayPtr) * (level + 1));
-
-	HnswPtrStore(base, element->neighbors, neighborList);
+	element->neighbors = palloc(sizeof(HnswNeighborArray) * (level + 1));
 
 	for (int lc = 0; lc <= level; lc++)
 	{
 		HnswNeighborArray *a;
 		int			lm = HnswGetLayerM(m, lc);
 
-		HnswPtrStore(base, neighborList[lc], (HnswNeighborArray *) HnswAlloc(allocator, offsetof(HnswNeighborArray, items) + sizeof(HnswCandidate) * lm));
-
-		a = HnswGetNeighbors(base, element, lc);
+		a = &element->neighbors[lc];
 		a->length = 0;
+		a->items = palloc(sizeof(HnswCandidate) * lm);
 		a->closerSet = false;
 	}
 }
 
-/*
- * Allocate memory from the allocator
- */
-void *
-HnswAlloc(HnswAllocator * allocator, Size size)
-{
-	if (allocator)
-		return (*(allocator)->alloc) (size, (allocator)->state);
-
-	return palloc(size);
-}
-
 /*
  * Allocate an element
  */
 HnswElement
-HnswInitElement(char *base, ItemPointer heaptid, int m, double ml, int maxLevel, HnswAllocator * allocator)
+HnswInitElement(ItemPointer heaptid, int m, double ml, int maxLevel)
 {
-	HnswElement element = HnswAlloc(allocator, sizeof(HnswElementData));
+	HnswElement element = palloc(sizeof(HnswElementData));
 
 	int			level = (int) (-log(RandomDouble()) * ml);
 
@@ -272,9 +226,9 @@ HnswInitElement(char *base, ItemPointer heaptid, int m, double ml, int maxLevel,
 	element->level = level;
 	element->deleted = 0;
 
-	HnswInitNeighbors(base, element, m, allocator);
+	HnswInitNeighbors(element, m);
 
-	HnswPtrStore(base, element->value, (Pointer) NULL);
+	element->value = PointerGetDatum(NULL);
 
 	return element;
 }
@@ -295,12 +249,11 @@ HnswElement
 HnswInitElementFromBlock(BlockNumber blkno, OffsetNumber offno)
 {
 	HnswElement element = palloc(sizeof(HnswElementData));
-	char	   *base = NULL;
 
 	element->blkno = blkno;
 	element->offno = offno;
-	HnswPtrStore(base, element->neighbors, (HnswNeighborArrayPtr *) NULL);
-	HnswPtrStore(base, element->value, (Pointer) NULL);
+	element->neighbors = NULL;
+	element->value = PointerGetDatum(NULL);
 	return element;
 }
 
@@ -410,10 +363,8 @@ HnswUpdateMetaPage(Relation index, int updateEntry, HnswElement entryPoint, Bloc
  * Set element tuple, except for neighbor info
  */
 void
-HnswSetElementTuple(char *base, HnswElementTuple etup, HnswElement element)
+HnswSetElementTuple(HnswElementTuple etup, HnswElement element)
 {
-	Pointer		valuePtr = HnswPtrAccess(base, element->value);
-
 	etup->type = HNSW_ELEMENT_TUPLE_TYPE;
 	etup->level = element->level;
 	etup->deleted = 0;
@@ -424,14 +375,14 @@ HnswSetElementTuple(char *base, HnswElementTuple etup, HnswElement element)
 		else
 			ItemPointerSetInvalid(&etup->heaptids[i]);
 	}
-	memcpy(&etup->data, valuePtr, VARSIZE_ANY(valuePtr));
+	memcpy(&etup->data, DatumGetPointer(element->value), VARSIZE_ANY(DatumGetPointer(element->value)));
 }
 
 /*
  * Set neighbor tuple
  */
 void
-HnswSetNeighborTuple(char *base, HnswNeighborTuple ntup, HnswElement e, int m)
+HnswSetNeighborTuple(HnswNeighborTuple ntup, HnswElement e, int m)
 {
 	int			idx = 0;
 
@@ -439,7 +390,7 @@ HnswSetNeighborTuple(char *base, HnswNeighborTuple ntup, HnswElement e, int m)
 
 	for (int lc = e->level; lc >= 0; lc--)
 	{
-		HnswNeighborArray *neighbors = HnswGetNeighbors(base, e, lc);
+		HnswNeighborArray *neighbors = HnswGetNeighbors(e, lc);
 		int			lm = HnswGetLayerM(m, lc);
 
 		for (int i = 0; i < lm; i++)
@@ -449,9 +400,8 @@ HnswSetNeighborTuple(char *base, HnswNeighborTuple ntup, HnswElement e, int m)
 			if (i < neighbors->length)
 			{
 				HnswCandidate *hc = &neighbors->items[i];
-				HnswElement hce = HnswPtrAccess(base, hc->element);
 
-				ItemPointerSet(indextid, hce->blkno, hce->offno);
+				ItemPointerSet(indextid, hc->element->blkno, hc->element->offno);
 			}
 			else
 				ItemPointerSetInvalid(indextid);
@@ -467,14 +417,12 @@ HnswSetNeighborTuple(char *base, HnswNeighborTuple ntup, HnswElement e, int m)
 static void
 LoadNeighborsFromPage(HnswElement element, Relation index, Page page, int m)
 {
-	char	   *base = NULL;
-
 	HnswNeighborTuple ntup = (HnswNeighborTuple) PageGetItem(page, PageGetItemId(page, element->neighborOffno));
 	int			neighborCount = (element->level + 2) * m;
 
 	Assert(HnswIsNeighborTuple(ntup));
 
-	HnswInitNeighbors(base, element, m, NULL);
+	HnswInitNeighbors(element, m);
 
 	/* Ensure expected neighbors */
 	if (ntup->count != neighborCount)
@@ -500,9 +448,9 @@ LoadNeighborsFromPage(HnswElement element, Relation index, Page page, int m)
 		if (level < 0)
 			level = 0;
 
-		neighbors = HnswGetNeighbors(base, element, level);
+		neighbors = HnswGetNeighbors(element, level);
 		hc = &neighbors->items[neighbors->length++];
-		HnswPtrStore(base, hc->element, e);
+		hc->element = e;
 	}
 }
 
@@ -549,12 +497,7 @@ HnswLoadElementFromTuple(HnswElement element, HnswElementTuple etup, bool loadHe
 	}
 
 	if (loadVec)
-	{
-		char	   *base = NULL;
-		Datum		value = datumCopy(PointerGetDatum(&etup->data), false, -1);
-
-		HnswPtrStore(base, element->value, DatumGetPointer(value));
-	}
+		element->value = datumCopy(PointerGetDatum(&etup->data), false, -1);
 }
 
 /*
@@ -590,27 +533,24 @@ HnswLoadElement(HnswElement element, float *distance, Datum *q, Relation index,
  * Get the distance for a candidate
  */
 static float
-GetCandidateDistance(char *base, HnswCandidate * hc, Datum q, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation)
+GetCandidateDistance(HnswCandidate * hc, Datum q, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation)
 {
-	HnswElement hce = HnswPtrAccess(base, hc->element);
-	Datum		value = HnswGetValue(base, hce);
-
-	return DatumGetFloat8(FunctionCall2Coll(procinfo, collation, q, value));
+	return DatumGetFloat8(FunctionCall2Coll(procinfo, collation, q, hc->element->value));
 }
 
 /*
  * Create a candidate for the entry point
  */
 HnswCandidate *
-HnswEntryCandidate(char *base, HnswElement entryPoint, Datum q, Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, bool loadVec)
+HnswEntryCandidate(HnswElement entryPoint, Datum q, Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, bool loadVec)
 {
 	HnswCandidate *hc = palloc(sizeof(HnswCandidate));
 
-	HnswPtrStore(base, hc->element, entryPoint);
+	hc->element = entryPoint;
 	if (index == NULL)
-		hc->distance = GetCandidateDistance(base, hc, q, procinfo, collation);
+		hc->distance = GetCandidateDistance(hc, q, procinfo, collation);
 	else
-		HnswLoadElement(entryPoint, &hc->distance, &q, index, procinfo, collation, loadVec);
+		HnswLoadElement(hc->element, &hc->distance, &q, index, procinfo, collation, loadVec);
 	return hc;
 }
 
@@ -656,79 +596,34 @@ CreatePairingHeapNode(HnswCandidate * c)
 	return node;
 }
 
-/*
- * Init visited
- */
-static inline void
-InitVisited(char *base, visited_hash * v, Relation index, int ef, int m)
-{
-	if (index != NULL)
-		v->tids = tidhash_create(CurrentMemoryContext, ef * m * 2, NULL);
-	else if (base != NULL)
-		v->offsets = offsethash_create(CurrentMemoryContext, ef * m * 2, NULL);
-	else
-		v->pointers = pointerhash_create(CurrentMemoryContext, ef * m * 2, NULL);
-}
-
 /*
  * Add to visited
  */
 static inline void
-AddToVisited(char *base, visited_hash * v, HnswCandidate * hc, Relation index, bool *found)
+AddToVisited(visited_hash v, HnswCandidate * hc, Relation index, bool *found)
 {
-	if (index != NULL)
-	{
-		HnswElement element = HnswPtrAccess(base, hc->element);
-		ItemPointerData indextid;
-
-		ItemPointerSet(&indextid, element->blkno, element->offno);
-		tidhash_insert(v->tids, indextid, found);
-	}
-	else if (base != NULL)
+	if (index == NULL)
 	{
 #if PG_VERSION_NUM >= 130000
-		HnswElement element = HnswPtrAccess(base, hc->element);
-
-		offsethash_insert_hash(v->offsets, HnswPtrOffset(hc->element), element->hash, found);
+		pointerhash_insert_hash(v.pointers, (uintptr_t) hc->element, hc->element->hash, found);
 #else
-		offsethash_insert(v->offsets, HnswPtrOffset(hc->element), found);
+		pointerhash_insert(v.pointers, (uintptr_t) hc->element, found);
 #endif
 	}
 	else
 	{
-#if PG_VERSION_NUM >= 130000
-		HnswElement element = HnswPtrAccess(base, hc->element);
+		ItemPointerData indextid;
 
-		pointerhash_insert_hash(v->pointers, (uintptr_t) HnswPtrPointer(hc->element), element->hash, found);
-#else
-		pointerhash_insert(v->pointers, (uintptr_t) HnswPtrPointer(hc->element), found);
-#endif
+		ItemPointerSet(&indextid, hc->element->blkno, hc->element->offno);
+		tidhash_insert(v.tids, indextid, found);
 	}
 }
 
-/*
- * Count element towards ef
- */
-static inline bool
-CountElement(char *base, HnswElement skipElement, HnswCandidate * hc)
-{
-	HnswElement e;
-
-	if (skipElement == NULL)
-		return true;
-
-	/* Ensure does not access heaptidsLength during in-memory build */
-	pg_memory_barrier();
-
-	e = HnswPtrAccess(base, hc->element);
-	return e->heaptidsLength != 0;
-}
-
 /*
  * Algorithm 2 from paper
  */
 List *
-HnswSearchLayer(char *base, Datum q, List *ep, int ef, int lc, Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, int m, bool inserting, HnswElement skipElement)
+HnswSearchLayer(Datum q, List *ep, int ef, int lc, Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, int m, bool inserting, HnswElement skipElement)
 {
 	List	   *w = NIL;
 	pairingheap *C = pairingheap_allocate(CompareNearestCandidates, NULL);
@@ -736,17 +631,12 @@ HnswSearchLayer(char *base, Datum q, List *ep, int ef, int lc, Relation index, F
 	int			wlen = 0;
 	visited_hash v;
 	ListCell   *lc2;
-	HnswNeighborArray *neighborhoodData = NULL;
-	Size		neighborhoodSize;
 
-	InitVisited(base, &v, index, ef, m);
-
-	/* Create local memory for neighborhood if needed */
+	/* Create hash table */
 	if (index == NULL)
-	{
-		neighborhoodSize = offsetof(HnswNeighborArray, items) + sizeof(HnswCandidate) * HnswGetLayerM(m, lc);
-		neighborhoodData = palloc(neighborhoodSize);
-	}
+		v.pointers = pointerhash_create(CurrentMemoryContext, ef * m * 2, NULL);
+	else
+		v.tids = tidhash_create(CurrentMemoryContext, ef * m * 2, NULL);
 
 	/* Add entry points to v, C, and W */
 	foreach(lc2, ep)
@@ -754,7 +644,7 @@ HnswSearchLayer(char *base, Datum q, List *ep, int ef, int lc, Relation index, F
 		HnswCandidate *hc = (HnswCandidate *) lfirst(lc2);
 		bool		found;
 
-		AddToVisited(base, &v, hc, index, &found);
+		AddToVisited(v, hc, index, &found);
 
 		pairingheap_add(C, &(CreatePairingHeapNode(hc)->ph_node));
 		pairingheap_add(W, &(CreatePairingHeapNode(hc)->ph_node));
@@ -764,7 +654,7 @@ HnswSearchLayer(char *base, Datum q, List *ep, int ef, int lc, Relation index, F
 		 * would be ideal to do this for inserts as well, but this could
 		 * affect insert performance.
 		 */
-		if (CountElement(base, skipElement, hc))
+		if (skipElement == NULL || hc->element->heaptidsLength != 0)
 			wlen++;
 	}
 
@@ -773,51 +663,38 @@ HnswSearchLayer(char *base, Datum q, List *ep, int ef, int lc, Relation index, F
 		HnswNeighborArray *neighborhood;
 		HnswCandidate *c = ((HnswPairingHeapNode *) pairingheap_remove_first(C))->inner;
 		HnswCandidate *f = ((HnswPairingHeapNode *) pairingheap_first(W))->inner;
-		HnswElement cElement;
 
 		if (c->distance > f->distance)
 			break;
 
-		cElement = HnswPtrAccess(base, c->element);
-
-		if (HnswPtrIsNull(base, cElement->neighbors))
-			HnswLoadNeighbors(cElement, index, m);
+		if (c->element->neighbors == NULL)
+			HnswLoadNeighbors(c->element, index, m);
 
 		/* Get the neighborhood at layer lc */
-		neighborhood = HnswGetNeighbors(base, cElement, lc);
-
-		/* Copy neighborhood to local memory if needed */
-		if (index == NULL)
-		{
-			LWLockAcquire(&cElement->lock, LW_SHARED);
-			memcpy(neighborhoodData, neighborhood, neighborhoodSize);
-			LWLockRelease(&cElement->lock);
-			neighborhood = neighborhoodData;
-		}
+		neighborhood = HnswGetNeighbors(c->element, lc);
 
 		for (int i = 0; i < neighborhood->length; i++)
 		{
 			HnswCandidate *e = &neighborhood->items[i];
 			bool		visited;
 
-			AddToVisited(base, &v, e, index, &visited);
+			AddToVisited(v, e, index, &visited);
 
 			if (!visited)
 			{
 				float		eDistance;
-				HnswElement eElement = HnswPtrAccess(base, e->element);
 
 				f = ((HnswPairingHeapNode *) pairingheap_first(W))->inner;
 
 				if (index == NULL)
-					eDistance = GetCandidateDistance(base, e, q, procinfo, collation);
+					eDistance = GetCandidateDistance(e, q, procinfo, collation);
 				else
-					HnswLoadElement(eElement, &eDistance, &q, index, procinfo, collation, inserting);
+					HnswLoadElement(e->element, &eDistance, &q, index, procinfo, collation, inserting);
 
-				Assert(!eElement->deleted);
+				Assert(!e->element->deleted);
 
 				/* Make robust to issues */
-				if (eElement->level < lc)
+				if (e->element->level < lc)
 					continue;
 
 				if (eDistance < f->distance || wlen < ef)
@@ -825,7 +702,7 @@ HnswSearchLayer(char *base, Datum q, List *ep, int ef, int lc, Relation index, F
 					/* Copy e */
 					HnswCandidate *ec = palloc(sizeof(HnswCandidate));
 
-					HnswPtrStore(base, ec->element, eElement);
+					ec->element = e->element;
 					ec->distance = eDistance;
 
 					pairingheap_add(C, &(CreatePairingHeapNode(ec)->ph_node));
@@ -836,7 +713,7 @@ HnswSearchLayer(char *base, Datum q, List *ep, int ef, int lc, Relation index, F
 					 * vacuuming. It would be ideal to do this for inserts as
 					 * well, but this could affect insert performance.
 					 */
-					if (CountElement(base, skipElement, e))
+					if (skipElement == NULL || e->element->heaptidsLength != 0)
 					{
 						wlen++;
 
@@ -861,7 +738,7 @@ HnswSearchLayer(char *base, Datum q, List *ep, int ef, int lc, Relation index, F
 }
 
 /*
- * Compare candidate distances with pointer tie-breaker
+ * Compare candidate distances
  */
 static int
 #if PG_VERSION_NUM >= 130000
@@ -879,38 +756,10 @@ CompareCandidateDistances(const void *a, const void *b)
 	if (hca->distance > hcb->distance)
 		return -1;
 
-	if (HnswPtrPointer(hca->element) < HnswPtrPointer(hcb->element))
+	if (hca->element < hcb->element)
 		return 1;
 
-	if (HnswPtrPointer(hca->element) > HnswPtrPointer(hcb->element))
-		return -1;
-
-	return 0;
-}
-
-/*
- * Compare candidate distances with offset tie-breaker
- */
-static int
-#if PG_VERSION_NUM >= 130000
-CompareCandidateDistancesOffset(const ListCell *a, const ListCell *b)
-#else
-CompareCandidateDistancesOffset(const void *a, const void *b)
-#endif
-{
-	HnswCandidate *hca = lfirst((ListCell *) a);
-	HnswCandidate *hcb = lfirst((ListCell *) b);
-
-	if (hca->distance < hcb->distance)
-		return 1;
-
-	if (hca->distance > hcb->distance)
-		return -1;
-
-	if (HnswPtrOffset(hca->element) < HnswPtrOffset(hcb->element))
-		return 1;
-
-	if (HnswPtrOffset(hca->element) > HnswPtrOffset(hcb->element))
+	if (hca->element > hcb->element)
 		return -1;
 
 	return 0;
@@ -920,58 +769,46 @@ CompareCandidateDistancesOffset(const void *a, const void *b)
  * Calculate the distance between elements
  */
 static float
-HnswGetDistance(char *base, HnswElement a, HnswElement b, int lc, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation)
+HnswGetDistance(HnswElement a, HnswElement b, int lc, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation)
 {
-	Datum		aValue;
-	Datum		bValue;
-
 	/* Look for cached distance */
-	if (!HnswPtrIsNull(base, a->neighbors))
+	if (a->neighbors != NULL)
 	{
-		HnswNeighborArray *neighbors = HnswGetNeighbors(base, a, lc);
+		HnswNeighborArray *neighbors = HnswGetNeighbors(a, lc);
 
 		for (int i = 0; i < neighbors->length; i++)
 		{
-			HnswElement element = HnswPtrAccess(base, neighbors->items[i].element);
-
-			if (element == b)
+			if (neighbors->items[i].element == b)
 				return neighbors->items[i].distance;
 		}
 	}
 
-	if (!HnswPtrIsNull(base, b->neighbors))
+	if (b->neighbors != NULL)
 	{
-		HnswNeighborArray *neighbors = HnswGetNeighbors(base, b, lc);
+		HnswNeighborArray *neighbors = HnswGetNeighbors(b, lc);
 
 		for (int i = 0; i < neighbors->length; i++)
 		{
-			HnswElement element = HnswPtrAccess(base, neighbors->items[i].element);
-
-			if (element == a)
+			if (neighbors->items[i].element == a)
 				return neighbors->items[i].distance;
 		}
 	}
 
-	aValue = HnswGetValue(base, a);
-	bValue = HnswGetValue(base, b);
-
-	return DatumGetFloat8(FunctionCall2Coll(procinfo, collation, aValue, bValue));
+	return DatumGetFloat8(FunctionCall2Coll(procinfo, collation, a->value, b->value));
 }
 
 /*
  * Check if an element is closer to q than any element from R
  */
 static bool
-CheckElementCloser(char *base, HnswCandidate * e, List *r, int lc, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation)
+CheckElementCloser(HnswCandidate * e, List *r, int lc, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation)
 {
-	HnswElement eElement = HnswPtrAccess(base, e->element);
 	ListCell   *lc2;
 
 	foreach(lc2, r)
 	{
 		HnswCandidate *ri = lfirst(lc2);
-		HnswElement riElement = HnswPtrAccess(base, ri->element);
-		float		distance = HnswGetDistance(base, eElement, riElement, lc, procinfo, collation);
+		float		distance = HnswGetDistance(e->element, ri->element, lc, procinfo, collation);
 
 		if (distance <= e->distance)
 			return false;
@@ -984,12 +821,12 @@ CheckElementCloser(char *base, HnswCandidate * e, List *r, int lc, FmgrInfo *pro
  * Algorithm 4 from paper
  */
 static List *
-SelectNeighbors(char *base, List *c, int m, int lc, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, HnswElement e2, HnswCandidate * newCandidate, HnswCandidate * *pruned, bool sortCandidates)
+SelectNeighbors(List *c, int m, int lc, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, HnswElement e2, HnswCandidate * newCandidate, HnswCandidate * *pruned, bool sortCandidates)
 {
 	List	   *r = NIL;
 	List	   *w = list_copy(c);
 	pairingheap *wd;
-	HnswNeighborArray *neighbors = HnswGetNeighbors(base, e2, lc);
+	HnswNeighborArray *neighbors = HnswGetNeighbors(e2, lc);
 	bool		mustCalculate = !neighbors->closerSet;
 	List	   *added = NIL;
 	bool		removedAny = false;
@@ -1001,12 +838,7 @@ SelectNeighbors(char *base, List *c, int m, int lc, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid coll
 
 	/* Ensure order of candidates is deterministic for closer caching */
 	if (sortCandidates)
-	{
-		if (base == NULL)
-			list_sort(w, CompareCandidateDistances);
-		else
-			list_sort(w, CompareCandidateDistancesOffset);
-	}
+		list_sort(w, CompareCandidateDistances);
 
 	while (list_length(w) > 0 && list_length(r) < m)
 	{
@@ -1017,7 +849,7 @@ SelectNeighbors(char *base, List *c, int m, int lc, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid coll
 
 		/* Use previous state of r and wd to skip work when possible */
 		if (mustCalculate)
-			e->closer = CheckElementCloser(base, e, r, lc, procinfo, collation);
+			e->closer = CheckElementCloser(e, r, lc, procinfo, collation);
 		else if (list_length(added) > 0)
 		{
 			/*
@@ -1026,7 +858,7 @@ SelectNeighbors(char *base, List *c, int m, int lc, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid coll
 			 */
 			if (e->closer)
 			{
-				e->closer = CheckElementCloser(base, e, added, lc, procinfo, collation);
+				e->closer = CheckElementCloser(e, added, lc, procinfo, collation);
 
 				if (!e->closer)
 					removedAny = true;
@@ -1039,7 +871,7 @@ SelectNeighbors(char *base, List *c, int m, int lc, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid coll
 				 */
 				if (removedAny)
 				{
-					e->closer = CheckElementCloser(base, e, r, lc, procinfo, collation);
+					e->closer = CheckElementCloser(e, r, lc, procinfo, collation);
 					if (e->closer)
 						added = lappend(added, e);
 				}
@@ -1047,7 +879,7 @@ SelectNeighbors(char *base, List *c, int m, int lc, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid coll
 		}
 		else if (e == newCandidate)
 		{
-			e->closer = CheckElementCloser(base, e, r, lc, procinfo, collation);
+			e->closer = CheckElementCloser(e, r, lc, procinfo, collation);
 			if (e->closer)
 				added = lappend(added, e);
 		}
@@ -1081,10 +913,10 @@ SelectNeighbors(char *base, List *c, int m, int lc, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid coll
  * Add connections
  */
 static void
-AddConnections(char *base, HnswElement element, List *neighbors, int m, int lc)
+AddConnections(HnswElement element, List *neighbors, int m, int lc)
 {
 	ListCell   *lc2;
-	HnswNeighborArray *a = HnswGetNeighbors(base, element, lc);
+	HnswNeighborArray *a = HnswGetNeighbors(element, lc);
 
 	foreach(lc2, neighbors)
 		a->items[a->length++] = *((HnswCandidate *) lfirst(lc2));
@@ -1094,13 +926,13 @@ AddConnections(char *base, HnswElement element, List *neighbors, int m, int lc)
  * Update connections
  */
 void
-HnswUpdateConnection(char *base, HnswElement element, HnswCandidate * hc, int m, int lc, int *updateIdx, Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation)
+HnswUpdateConnection(HnswElement element, HnswCandidate * hc, int m, int lc, int *updateIdx, Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation)
 {
-	HnswElement hce = HnswPtrAccess(base, hc->element);
-	HnswNeighborArray *currentNeighbors = HnswGetNeighbors(base, hce, lc);
+	HnswNeighborArray *currentNeighbors = HnswGetNeighbors(hc->element, lc);
+
 	HnswCandidate hc2;
 
-	HnswPtrStore(base, hc2.element, element);
+	hc2.element = element;
 	hc2.distance = hc->distance;
 
 	if (currentNeighbors->length < m)
@@ -1119,20 +951,19 @@ HnswUpdateConnection(char *base, HnswElement element, HnswCandidate * hc, int m,
 		/* Load elements on insert */
 		if (index != NULL)
 		{
-			Datum		q = HnswGetValue(base, hce);
+			Datum		q = hc->element->value;
 
 			for (int i = 0; i < currentNeighbors->length; i++)
 			{
 				HnswCandidate *hc3 = &currentNeighbors->items[i];
-				HnswElement hc3Element = HnswPtrAccess(base, hc3->element);
 
-				if (HnswPtrIsNull(base, hc3Element->value))
-					HnswLoadElement(hc3Element, &hc3->distance, &q, index, procinfo, collation, true);
+				if (DatumGetPointer(hc3->element->value) == NULL)
+					HnswLoadElement(hc3->element, &hc3->distance, &q, index, procinfo, collation, true);
 				else
-					hc3->distance = GetCandidateDistance(base, hc3, q, procinfo, collation);
+					hc3->distance = GetCandidateDistance(hc3, q, procinfo, collation);
 
 				/* Prune element if being deleted */
-				if (hc3Element->heaptidsLength == 0)
+				if (hc3->element->heaptidsLength == 0)
 				{
 					pruned = &currentNeighbors->items[i];
 					break;
@@ -1149,7 +980,7 @@ HnswUpdateConnection(char *base, HnswElement element, HnswCandidate * hc, int m,
 				c = lappend(c, &currentNeighbors->items[i]);
 			c = lappend(c, &hc2);
 
-			SelectNeighbors(base, c, m, lc, procinfo, collation, hce, &hc2, &pruned, true);
+			SelectNeighbors(c, m, lc, procinfo, collation, hc->element, &hc2, &pruned, true);
 
 			/* Should not happen */
 			if (pruned == NULL)
@@ -1159,7 +990,7 @@ HnswUpdateConnection(char *base, HnswElement element, HnswCandidate * hc, int m,
 		/* Find and replace the pruned element */
 		for (int i = 0; i < currentNeighbors->length; i++)
 		{
-			if (HnswPtrEqual(base, currentNeighbors->items[i].element, pruned->element))
+			if (currentNeighbors->items[i].element == pruned->element)
 			{
 				currentNeighbors->items[i] = hc2;
 
@@ -1177,65 +1008,43 @@ HnswUpdateConnection(char *base, HnswElement element, HnswCandidate * hc, int m,
  * Remove elements being deleted or skipped
  */
 static List *
-RemoveElements(char *base, List *w, HnswElement skipElement)
+RemoveElements(List *w, HnswElement skipElement)
 {
 	ListCell   *lc2;
 	List	   *w2 = NIL;
 
-	/* Ensure does not access heaptidsLength during in-memory build */
-	pg_memory_barrier();
-
 	foreach(lc2, w)
 	{
 		HnswCandidate *hc = (HnswCandidate *) lfirst(lc2);
-		HnswElement hce = HnswPtrAccess(base, hc->element);
 
 		/* Skip self for vacuuming update */
-		if (skipElement != NULL && hce->blkno == skipElement->blkno && hce->offno == skipElement->offno)
+		if (skipElement != NULL && hc->element->blkno == skipElement->blkno && hc->element->offno == skipElement->offno)
 			continue;
 
-		if (hce->heaptidsLength != 0)
+		if (hc->element->heaptidsLength != 0)
 			w2 = lappend(w2, hc);
 	}
 
 	return w2;
 }
 
-#if PG_VERSION_NUM >= 130000
-/*
- * Precompute hash
- */
-static void
-PrecomputeHash(char *base, HnswElement element)
-{
-	HnswElementPtr ptr;
-
-	HnswPtrStore(base, ptr, element);
-
-	if (base == NULL)
-		element->hash = hash_pointer((uintptr_t) HnswPtrPointer(ptr));
-	else
-		element->hash = hash_offset(HnswPtrOffset(ptr));
-}
-#endif
-
 /*
  * Algorithm 1 from paper
  */
 void
-HnswFindElementNeighbors(char *base, HnswElement element, HnswElement entryPoint, Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, int m, int efConstruction, bool existing)
+HnswInsertElement(HnswElement element, HnswElement entryPoint, Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, int m, int efConstruction, bool existing)
 {
 	List	   *ep;
 	List	   *w;
 	int			level = element->level;
 	int			entryLevel;
-	Datum		q = HnswGetValue(base, element);
+	Datum		q = element->value;
 	HnswElement skipElement = existing ? element : NULL;
 
 #if PG_VERSION_NUM >= 130000
 	/* Precompute hash */
 	if (index == NULL)
-		PrecomputeHash(base, element);
+		element->hash = hash_pointer((uintptr_t) element);
 #endif
 
 	/* No neighbors if no entry point */
@@ -1243,13 +1052,13 @@ HnswFindElementNeighbors(char *base, HnswElement element, HnswElement entryPoint
 		return;
 
 	/* Get entry point and level */
-	ep = list_make1(HnswEntryCandidate(base, entryPoint, q, index, procinfo, collation, true));
+	ep = list_make1(HnswEntryCandidate(entryPoint, q, index, procinfo, collation, true));
 	entryLevel = entryPoint->level;
 
 	/* 1st phase: greedy search to insert level */
 	for (int lc = entryLevel; lc >= level + 1; lc--)
 	{
-		w = HnswSearchLayer(base, q, ep, 1, lc, index, procinfo, collation, m, true, skipElement);
+		w = HnswSearchLayer(q, ep, 1, lc, index, procinfo, collation, m, true, skipElement);
 		ep = w;
 	}
 
@@ -1267,12 +1076,12 @@ HnswFindElementNeighbors(char *base, HnswElement element, HnswElement entryPoint
 		List	   *neighbors;
 		List	   *lw;
 
-		w = HnswSearchLayer(base, q, ep, efConstruction, lc, index, procinfo, collation, m, true, skipElement);
+		w = HnswSearchLayer(q, ep, efConstruction, lc, index, procinfo, collation, m, true, skipElement);
 
 		/* Elements being deleted or skipped can help with search */
 		/* but should be removed before selecting neighbors */
 		if (index != NULL)
-			lw = RemoveElements(base, w, skipElement);
+			lw = RemoveElements(w, skipElement);
 		else
 			lw = w;
 
@@ -1281,9 +1090,9 @@ HnswFindElementNeighbors(char *base, HnswElement element, HnswElement entryPoint
 		 * sortCandidates to true for in-memory builds to enable closer
 		 * caching, but there does not seem to be a difference in performance.
 		 */
-		neighbors = SelectNeighbors(base, lw, lm, lc, procinfo, collation, element, NULL, NULL, false);
+		neighbors = SelectNeighbors(lw, lm, lc, procinfo, collation, element, NULL, NULL, false);
 
-		AddConnections(base, element, neighbors, lm, lc);
+		AddConnections(element, neighbors, lm, lc);
 
 		ep = w;
 	}

src/hnswvacuum.c

@@ -199,22 +199,21 @@ RepairGraphElement(HnswVacuumState * vacuumstate, HnswElement element, HnswEleme
 	BufferAccessStrategy bas = vacuumstate->bas;
 	HnswNeighborTuple ntup = vacuumstate->ntup;
 	Size		ntupSize = HNSW_NEIGHBOR_TUPLE_SIZE(element->level, m);
-	char	   *base = NULL;
 
 	/* Skip if element is entry point */
 	if (entryPoint != NULL && element->blkno == entryPoint->blkno && element->offno == entryPoint->offno)
 		return;
 
 	/* Init fields */
-	HnswInitNeighbors(base, element, m, NULL);
+	HnswInitNeighbors(element, m);
 	element->heaptidsLength = 0;
 
-	/* Find neighbors for element, skipping itself */
-	HnswFindElementNeighbors(base, element, entryPoint, index, procinfo, collation, m, efConstruction, true);
+	/* Add element to graph, skipping itself */
+	HnswInsertElement(element, entryPoint, index, procinfo, collation, m, efConstruction, true);
 
 	/* Update neighbor tuple */
 	/* Do this before getting page to minimize locking */
-	HnswSetNeighborTuple(base, ntup, element, m);
+	HnswSetNeighborTuple(ntup, element, m);
 
 	/* Get neighbor page */
 	buf = ReadBufferExtended(index, MAIN_FORKNUM, element->neighborPage, RBM_NORMAL, bas);
@@ -231,7 +230,7 @@ RepairGraphElement(HnswVacuumState * vacuumstate, HnswElement element, HnswEleme
 	UnlockReleaseBuffer(buf);
 
 	/* Update neighbors */
-	HnswUpdateNeighborsOnDisk(index, procinfo, collation, element, m, true, false);
+	HnswUpdateNeighborPages(index, procinfo, collation, element, m, true, false);
 }
 
 /*
@@ -302,7 +301,7 @@ RepairGraphEntryPoint(HnswVacuumState * vacuumstate)
 			{
 				/* Reset neighbors from previous update */
 				if (highestPoint != NULL)
-					HnswPtrStore((char *) NULL, highestPoint->neighbors, (HnswNeighborArrayPtr *) NULL);
+					highestPoint->neighbors = NULL;
 
 				RepairGraphElement(vacuumstate, entryPoint, highestPoint);
 			}

src/ivfflat.c

@@ -76,8 +76,8 @@ ivfflatcostestimate(PlannerInfo *root, IndexPath *path, double loop_count,
 	List	   *qinfos;
 #endif
 
-	/* Never use index without order */
-	if (path->indexorderbys == NULL)
+	/* Never use index without order or limit */
+	if (path->indexorderbys == NULL || root->limit_tuples < 0)
 	{
 		*indexStartupCost = DBL_MAX;
 		*indexTotalCost = DBL_MAX;
@@ -105,6 +105,20 @@ ivfflatcostestimate(PlannerInfo *root, IndexPath *path, double loop_count,
 	 */
 	costs.numIndexTuples = path->indexinfo->tuples * ratio;
 
+	/*
+	 * Do not use index if limit + offset > expected tuples unless
+	 * enable_seqscan = off
+	 */
+	if (root->limit_tuples > costs.numIndexTuples)
+	{
+		*indexStartupCost = 1.0e10 - 1;
+		*indexTotalCost = 1.0e10 - 1;
+		*indexSelectivity = 0;
+		*indexCorrelation = 0;
+		*indexPages = 0;
+		return;
+	}
+
 #if PG_VERSION_NUM >= 120000
 	genericcostestimate(root, path, loop_count, &costs);
 #else

src/vector.c

@@ -177,14 +177,15 @@ PGDLLEXPORT PG_FUNCTION_INFO_V1(vector_in);
 Datum
 vector_in(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
 {
-	char	   *str = PG_GETARG_CSTRING(0);
+	char	   *lit = PG_GETARG_CSTRING(0);
 	int32		typmod = PG_GETARG_INT32(2);
 	float		x[VECTOR_MAX_DIM];
 	int			dim = 0;
 	char	   *pt;
 	char	   *stringEnd;
 	Vector	   *result;
-	char	   *lit = pstrdup(str);
+	char	   *litcopy = pstrdup(lit);
+	char	   *str = litcopy;
 
 	while (vector_isspace(*str))
 		str++;
@@ -268,7 +269,7 @@ vector_in(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
 				(errcode(ERRCODE_DATA_EXCEPTION),
 				 errmsg("vector must have at least 1 dimension")));
 
-	pfree(lit);
+	pfree(litcopy);
 
 	CheckExpectedDim(typmod, dim);
 

test/expected/hnsw_cosine.out

@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ CREATE TABLE t (val vector(3));
 INSERT INTO t (val) VALUES ('[0,0,0]'), ('[1,2,3]'), ('[1,1,1]'), (NULL);
 CREATE INDEX ON t USING hnsw (val vector_cosine_ops);
 INSERT INTO t (val) VALUES ('[1,2,4]');
-SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <=> '[3,3,3]';
+SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <=> '[3,3,3]' LIMIT 5;
    val   
 ---------
  [1,1,1]
@@ -11,13 +11,13 @@ SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <=> '[3,3,3]';
  [1,2,4]
 (3 rows)
 
-SELECT COUNT(*) FROM (SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <=> '[0,0,0]') t2;
+SELECT COUNT(*) FROM (SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <=> '[0,0,0]' LIMIT 5) t2;
  count 
 -------
      3
 (1 row)
 
-SELECT COUNT(*) FROM (SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <=> (SELECT NULL::vector)) t2;
+SELECT COUNT(*) FROM (SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <=> (SELECT NULL::vector) LIMIT 5) t2;
  count 
 -------
      3

test/expected/hnsw_ip.out

@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ CREATE TABLE t (val vector(3));
 INSERT INTO t (val) VALUES ('[0,0,0]'), ('[1,2,3]'), ('[1,1,1]'), (NULL);
 CREATE INDEX ON t USING hnsw (val vector_ip_ops);
 INSERT INTO t (val) VALUES ('[1,2,4]');
-SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <#> '[3,3,3]';
+SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <#> '[3,3,3]' LIMIT 5;
    val   
 ---------
  [1,2,4]
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <#> '[3,3,3]';
  [0,0,0]
 (4 rows)
 
-SELECT COUNT(*) FROM (SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <#> (SELECT NULL::vector)) t2;
+SELECT COUNT(*) FROM (SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <#> (SELECT NULL::vector) LIMIT 5) t2;
  count 
 -------
      4

test/expected/hnsw_l2.out

@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ CREATE TABLE t (val vector(3));
 INSERT INTO t (val) VALUES ('[0,0,0]'), ('[1,2,3]'), ('[1,1,1]'), (NULL);
 CREATE INDEX ON t USING hnsw (val vector_l2_ops);
 INSERT INTO t (val) VALUES ('[1,2,4]');
-SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> '[3,3,3]';
+SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> '[3,3,3]' LIMIT 5;
    val   
 ---------
  [1,2,3]
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> '[3,3,3]';
  [0,0,0]
 (4 rows)
 
-SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> (SELECT NULL::vector);
+SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> (SELECT NULL::vector) LIMIT 5;
    val   
 ---------
  [0,0,0]
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ SELECT COUNT(*) FROM t;
 (1 row)
 
 TRUNCATE t;
-SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> '[3,3,3]';
+SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> '[3,3,3]' LIMIT 5;
  val 
 -----
 (0 rows)

test/expected/hnsw_unlogged.out

@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ SET enable_seqscan = off;
 CREATE UNLOGGED TABLE t (val vector(3));
 INSERT INTO t (val) VALUES ('[0,0,0]'), ('[1,2,3]'), ('[1,1,1]'), (NULL);
 CREATE INDEX ON t USING hnsw (val vector_l2_ops);
-SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> '[3,3,3]';
+SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> '[3,3,3]' LIMIT 5;
    val   
 ---------
  [1,2,3]

test/expected/ivfflat_cosine.out

@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ CREATE TABLE t (val vector(3));
 INSERT INTO t (val) VALUES ('[0,0,0]'), ('[1,2,3]'), ('[1,1,1]'), (NULL);
 CREATE INDEX ON t USING ivfflat (val vector_cosine_ops) WITH (lists = 1);
 INSERT INTO t (val) VALUES ('[1,2,4]');
-SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <=> '[3,3,3]';
+SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <=> '[3,3,3]' LIMIT 5;
    val   
 ---------
  [1,1,1]
@@ -11,13 +11,13 @@ SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <=> '[3,3,3]';
  [1,2,4]
 (3 rows)
 
-SELECT COUNT(*) FROM (SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <=> '[0,0,0]') t2;
+SELECT COUNT(*) FROM (SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <=> '[0,0,0]' LIMIT 5) t2;
  count 
 -------
      3
 (1 row)
 
-SELECT COUNT(*) FROM (SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <=> (SELECT NULL::vector)) t2;
+SELECT COUNT(*) FROM (SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <=> (SELECT NULL::vector) LIMIT 5) t2;
  count 
 -------
      3

test/expected/ivfflat_ip.out

@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ CREATE TABLE t (val vector(3));
 INSERT INTO t (val) VALUES ('[0,0,0]'), ('[1,2,3]'), ('[1,1,1]'), (NULL);
 CREATE INDEX ON t USING ivfflat (val vector_ip_ops) WITH (lists = 1);
 INSERT INTO t (val) VALUES ('[1,2,4]');
-SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <#> '[3,3,3]';
+SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <#> '[3,3,3]' LIMIT 5;
    val   
 ---------
  [1,2,4]
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <#> '[3,3,3]';
  [0,0,0]
 (4 rows)
 
-SELECT COUNT(*) FROM (SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <#> (SELECT NULL::vector)) t2;
+SELECT COUNT(*) FROM (SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <#> (SELECT NULL::vector) LIMIT 5) t2;
  count 
 -------
      4

test/expected/ivfflat_l2.out

@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ CREATE TABLE t (val vector(3));
 INSERT INTO t (val) VALUES ('[0,0,0]'), ('[1,2,3]'), ('[1,1,1]'), (NULL);
 CREATE INDEX ON t USING ivfflat (val vector_l2_ops) WITH (lists = 1);
 INSERT INTO t (val) VALUES ('[1,2,4]');
-SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> '[3,3,3]';
+SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> '[3,3,3]' LIMIT 5;
    val   
 ---------
  [1,2,3]
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> '[3,3,3]';
  [0,0,0]
 (4 rows)
 
-SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> (SELECT NULL::vector);
+SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> (SELECT NULL::vector) LIMIT 5;
    val   
 ---------
  [0,0,0]
@@ -31,7 +31,7 @@ TRUNCATE t;
 NOTICE:  ivfflat index created with little data
 DETAIL:  This will cause low recall.
 HINT:  Drop the index until the table has more data.
-SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> '[3,3,3]';
+SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> '[3,3,3]' LIMIT 5;
  val 
 -----
 (0 rows)

test/expected/ivfflat_unlogged.out

@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ SET enable_seqscan = off;
 CREATE UNLOGGED TABLE t (val vector(3));
 INSERT INTO t (val) VALUES ('[0,0,0]'), ('[1,2,3]'), ('[1,1,1]'), (NULL);
 CREATE INDEX ON t USING ivfflat (val vector_l2_ops) WITH (lists = 1);
-SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> '[3,3,3]';
+SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> '[3,3,3]' LIMIT 5;
    val   
 ---------
  [1,2,3]

test/sql/hnsw_cosine.sql

@@ -6,8 +6,8 @@ CREATE INDEX ON t USING hnsw (val vector_cosine_ops);
 
 INSERT INTO t (val) VALUES ('[1,2,4]');
 
-SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <=> '[3,3,3]';
-SELECT COUNT(*) FROM (SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <=> '[0,0,0]') t2;
-SELECT COUNT(*) FROM (SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <=> (SELECT NULL::vector)) t2;
+SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <=> '[3,3,3]' LIMIT 5;
+SELECT COUNT(*) FROM (SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <=> '[0,0,0]' LIMIT 5) t2;
+SELECT COUNT(*) FROM (SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <=> (SELECT NULL::vector) LIMIT 5) t2;
 
 DROP TABLE t;

test/sql/hnsw_ip.sql

@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ CREATE INDEX ON t USING hnsw (val vector_ip_ops);
 
 INSERT INTO t (val) VALUES ('[1,2,4]');
 
-SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <#> '[3,3,3]';
-SELECT COUNT(*) FROM (SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <#> (SELECT NULL::vector)) t2;
+SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <#> '[3,3,3]' LIMIT 5;
+SELECT COUNT(*) FROM (SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <#> (SELECT NULL::vector) LIMIT 5) t2;
 
 DROP TABLE t;

test/sql/hnsw_l2.sql

@@ -6,11 +6,11 @@ CREATE INDEX ON t USING hnsw (val vector_l2_ops);
 
 INSERT INTO t (val) VALUES ('[1,2,4]');
 
-SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> '[3,3,3]';
-SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> (SELECT NULL::vector);
+SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> '[3,3,3]' LIMIT 5;
+SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> (SELECT NULL::vector) LIMIT 5;
 SELECT COUNT(*) FROM t;
 
 TRUNCATE t;
-SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> '[3,3,3]';
+SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> '[3,3,3]' LIMIT 5;
 
 DROP TABLE t;

test/sql/hnsw_unlogged.sql

@@ -4,6 +4,6 @@ CREATE UNLOGGED TABLE t (val vector(3));
 INSERT INTO t (val) VALUES ('[0,0,0]'), ('[1,2,3]'), ('[1,1,1]'), (NULL);
 CREATE INDEX ON t USING hnsw (val vector_l2_ops);
 
-SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> '[3,3,3]';
+SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> '[3,3,3]' LIMIT 5;
 
 DROP TABLE t;

test/sql/ivfflat_cosine.sql

@@ -6,8 +6,8 @@ CREATE INDEX ON t USING ivfflat (val vector_cosine_ops) WITH (lists = 1);
 
 INSERT INTO t (val) VALUES ('[1,2,4]');
 
-SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <=> '[3,3,3]';
-SELECT COUNT(*) FROM (SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <=> '[0,0,0]') t2;
-SELECT COUNT(*) FROM (SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <=> (SELECT NULL::vector)) t2;
+SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <=> '[3,3,3]' LIMIT 5;
+SELECT COUNT(*) FROM (SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <=> '[0,0,0]' LIMIT 5) t2;
+SELECT COUNT(*) FROM (SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <=> (SELECT NULL::vector) LIMIT 5) t2;
 
 DROP TABLE t;

test/sql/ivfflat_ip.sql

@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ CREATE INDEX ON t USING ivfflat (val vector_ip_ops) WITH (lists = 1);
 
 INSERT INTO t (val) VALUES ('[1,2,4]');
 
-SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <#> '[3,3,3]';
-SELECT COUNT(*) FROM (SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <#> (SELECT NULL::vector)) t2;
+SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <#> '[3,3,3]' LIMIT 5;
+SELECT COUNT(*) FROM (SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <#> (SELECT NULL::vector) LIMIT 5) t2;
 
 DROP TABLE t;

test/sql/ivfflat_l2.sql

@@ -6,11 +6,11 @@ CREATE INDEX ON t USING ivfflat (val vector_l2_ops) WITH (lists = 1);
 
 INSERT INTO t (val) VALUES ('[1,2,4]');
 
-SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> '[3,3,3]';
-SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> (SELECT NULL::vector);
+SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> '[3,3,3]' LIMIT 5;
+SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> (SELECT NULL::vector) LIMIT 5;
 SELECT COUNT(*) FROM t;
 
 TRUNCATE t;
-SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> '[3,3,3]';
+SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> '[3,3,3]' LIMIT 5;
 
 DROP TABLE t;

test/sql/ivfflat_unlogged.sql

@@ -4,6 +4,6 @@ CREATE UNLOGGED TABLE t (val vector(3));
 INSERT INTO t (val) VALUES ('[0,0,0]'), ('[1,2,3]'), ('[1,1,1]'), (NULL);
 CREATE INDEX ON t USING ivfflat (val vector_l2_ops) WITH (lists = 1);
 
-SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> '[3,3,3]';
+SELECT * FROM t ORDER BY val <-> '[3,3,3]' LIMIT 5;
 
 DROP TABLE t;

test/t/007_ivfflat_inserts.pl

@@ -49,7 +49,7 @@ is(idx_scan(), 0);
 $count = $node->safe_psql("postgres", qq(
 	SET enable_seqscan = off;
 	SET ivfflat.probes = 100;
-	SELECT COUNT(*) FROM (SELECT v FROM tst ORDER BY v <-> (SELECT v FROM tst LIMIT 1)) t;
+	SELECT COUNT(*) FROM (SELECT v FROM tst ORDER BY v <-> (SELECT v FROM tst LIMIT 1) LIMIT 20000) t;
 ));
 is($count, $expected);
 is(idx_scan(), 1);

test/t/012_hnsw_build_recall.pl

@@ -95,10 +95,11 @@ for my $i (0 .. $#operators)
 
 	$node->safe_psql("postgres", "DROP INDEX idx;");
 
-	# Build index in parallel in memory
+	# Build index in parallel
 	my ($ret, $stdout, $stderr) = $node->psql("postgres", qq(
 		SET client_min_messages = DEBUG;
 		SET min_parallel_table_scan_size = 1;
+		SET hnsw.enable_parallel_build = on;
 		CREATE INDEX idx ON tst USING hnsw (v $opclass);
 	));
 	is($ret, 0, $stderr);
@@ -108,21 +109,6 @@ for my $i (0 .. $#operators)
 	test_recall($min, $operator);
 
 	$node->safe_psql("postgres", "DROP INDEX idx;");
-
-	# Build index in parallel on disk
-	# Set parallel_workers on table to use workers with low maintenance_work_mem
-	($ret, $stdout, $stderr) = $node->psql("postgres", qq(
-		ALTER TABLE tst SET (parallel_workers = 2);
-		SET client_min_messages = DEBUG;
-		SET maintenance_work_mem = '4MB';
-		CREATE INDEX idx ON tst USING hnsw (v $opclass);
-		ALTER TABLE tst RESET (parallel_workers);
-	));
-	is($ret, 0, $stderr);
-	like($stderr, qr/using \d+ parallel workers/);
-	like($stderr, qr/hnsw graph no longer fits into maintenance_work_mem/);
-
-	$node->safe_psql("postgres", "DROP INDEX idx;");
 }
 
 done_testing();

test/t/014_hnsw_inserts.pl

@@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ for my $i (1 .. 20)
 
 	my $count = $node->safe_psql("postgres", qq(
 		SET enable_seqscan = off;
-		SELECT COUNT(*) FROM (SELECT v FROM tst ORDER BY v <-> (SELECT v FROM tst LIMIT 1)) t;
+		SELECT COUNT(*) FROM (SELECT v FROM tst ORDER BY v <-> (SELECT v FROM tst LIMIT 1) LIMIT 20) t;
 	));
 	is($count, 10);
 
@@ -63,7 +63,7 @@ $node->pgbench(
 my $count = $node->safe_psql("postgres", qq(
 	SET enable_seqscan = off;
 	SET hnsw.ef_search = 1000;
-	SELECT COUNT(*) FROM (SELECT v FROM tst ORDER BY v <-> (SELECT v FROM tst LIMIT 1)) t;
+	SELECT COUNT(*) FROM (SELECT v FROM tst ORDER BY v <-> (SELECT v FROM tst LIMIT 1) LIMIT 1000) t;
 ));
 # Elements may lose all incoming connections with the HNSW algorithm
 # Vacuuming can fix this if one of the elements neighbors is deleted

test/t/015_hnsw_duplicates.pl

@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ sub test_duplicates
 	my $res = $node->safe_psql("postgres", qq(
 		SET enable_seqscan = off;
 		SET hnsw.ef_search = 1;
-		SELECT COUNT(*) FROM (SELECT * FROM tst ORDER BY v <-> '[1,1,1]') t;
+		SELECT COUNT(*) FROM (SELECT * FROM tst ORDER BY v <-> '[1,1,1]' LIMIT 20) t;
 	));
 	is($res, 10);
 }

test/t/019_ivfflat_limit.pl

@@ -0,0 +1,64 @@
+use strict;
+use warnings;
+use PostgresNode;
+use TestLib;
+use Test::More;
+
+# Initialize node
+my $node = get_new_node('node');
+$node->init;
+$node->start;
+
+# Create table and index
+$node->safe_psql("postgres", "CREATE EXTENSION vector;");
+$node->safe_psql("postgres", "CREATE TABLE tst (v vector(3));");
+$node->safe_psql("postgres",
+	"INSERT INTO tst SELECT ARRAY[random(), random(), random()] FROM generate_series(1, 1000) i;"
+);
+$node->safe_psql("postgres", "CREATE INDEX ON tst USING ivfflat (v vector_l2_ops) WITH (lists = 10);");
+
+# Test limit
+my $explain = $node->safe_psql("postgres", qq(
+	EXPLAIN ANALYZE SELECT * FROM tst ORDER BY v <-> '[1,2,3]' LIMIT 100;
+));
+like($explain, qr/Index Scan/);
+
+# Test limit with probes
+$explain = $node->safe_psql("postgres", qq(
+	SET ivfflat.probes = 2;
+	EXPLAIN ANALYZE SELECT * FROM tst ORDER BY v <-> '[1,2,3]' LIMIT 200;
+));
+like($explain, qr/Index Scan/);
+
+# Test limit + offset
+$explain = $node->safe_psql("postgres", qq(
+	EXPLAIN ANALYZE SELECT * FROM tst ORDER BY v <-> '[1,2,3]' LIMIT 90 OFFSET 10;
+));
+like($explain, qr/Index Scan/);
+
+# Test limit > expected tuples
+$explain = $node->safe_psql("postgres", qq(
+	EXPLAIN ANALYZE SELECT * FROM tst ORDER BY v <-> '[1,2,3]' LIMIT 101;
+));
+like($explain, qr/Seq Scan/);
+
+# Test limit > expected tuples with probes
+$explain = $node->safe_psql("postgres", qq(
+	SET ivfflat.probes = 2;
+	EXPLAIN ANALYZE SELECT * FROM tst ORDER BY v <-> '[1,2,3]' LIMIT 201;
+));
+like($explain, qr/Seq Scan/);
+
+# Test limit + offset > expected tuples
+$explain = $node->safe_psql("postgres", qq(
+	EXPLAIN ANALYZE SELECT * FROM tst ORDER BY v <-> '[1,2,3]' LIMIT 91 OFFSET 10;
+));
+like($explain, qr/Seq Scan/);
+
+# Test no limit
+$explain = $node->safe_psql("postgres", qq(
+	EXPLAIN ANALYZE SELECT * FROM tst ORDER BY v <-> '[1,2,3]';
+));
+like($explain, qr/Seq Scan/);
+
+done_testing();

test/t/020_hnsw_limit.pl

@@ -0,0 +1,62 @@
+use strict;
+use warnings;
+use PostgresNode;
+use TestLib;
+use Test::More;
+
+# Initialize node
+my $node = get_new_node('node');
+$node->init;
+$node->start;
+
+# Create table and index
+$node->safe_psql("postgres", "CREATE EXTENSION vector;");
+$node->safe_psql("postgres", "CREATE TABLE tst (v vector(3));");
+$node->safe_psql("postgres",
+	"INSERT INTO tst SELECT ARRAY[random(), random(), random()] FROM generate_series(1, 1000) i;"
+);
+$node->safe_psql("postgres", "CREATE INDEX ON tst USING hnsw (v vector_l2_ops);");
+
+# Test limit
+my $explain = $node->safe_psql("postgres", qq(
+	EXPLAIN ANALYZE SELECT * FROM tst ORDER BY v <-> '[1,2,3]' LIMIT 40;
+));
+like($explain, qr/Index Scan/);
+
+# Test limit with CTE
+$explain = $node->safe_psql("postgres", qq(
+	EXPLAIN ANALYZE WITH cte AS (SELECT * FROM tst ORDER BY v <-> '[1,2,3]' LIMIT 40) SELECT * FROM cte;
+));
+like($explain, qr/Index Scan/);
+
+# Test limit + offset
+$explain = $node->safe_psql("postgres", qq(
+	EXPLAIN ANALYZE SELECT * FROM tst ORDER BY v <-> '[1,2,3]' LIMIT 30 OFFSET 10;
+));
+like($explain, qr/Index Scan/);
+
+# Test limit > ef_search
+$explain = $node->safe_psql("postgres", qq(
+	EXPLAIN ANALYZE SELECT * FROM tst ORDER BY v <-> '[1,2,3]' LIMIT 41;
+));
+like($explain, qr/Seq Scan/);
+
+# Test limit > ef_search with CTE
+$explain = $node->safe_psql("postgres", qq(
+	EXPLAIN ANALYZE WITH cte AS (SELECT * FROM tst ORDER BY v <-> '[1,2,3]' LIMIT 41) SELECT * FROM cte;
+));
+like($explain, qr/Seq Scan/);
+
+# Test limit + offset > ef_search
+$explain = $node->safe_psql("postgres", qq(
+	EXPLAIN ANALYZE SELECT * FROM tst ORDER BY v <-> '[1,2,3]' LIMIT 31 OFFSET 10;
+));
+like($explain, qr/Seq Scan/);
+
+# Test no limit
+$explain = $node->safe_psql("postgres", qq(
+	EXPLAIN ANALYZE SELECT * FROM tst ORDER BY v <-> '[1,2,3]';
+));
+like($explain, qr/Seq Scan/);
+
+done_testing();