Started half indexing

Added half type
2026-07-22 12:07:34 +08:00 · 2023-12-03 15:12:50 -08:00 · 2023-12-03 13:01:47 -08:00
27 changed files with 1804 additions and 1469 deletions
--- a/.github/workflows/build.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/build.yml
@@ -20,8 +20,6 @@ jobs:
            os: ubuntu-20.04
          - postgres: 12
            os: ubuntu-20.04
-          - postgres: 11
-            os: ubuntu-20.04
    steps:
      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
      - uses: ankane/setup-postgres@v1
@@ -62,7 +60,7 @@ jobs:
          wget -q https://github.com/postgres/postgres/archive/refs/tags/REL_14_5.tar.gz
          tar xf REL_14_5.tar.gz
      - run: make prove_installcheck PROVE_FLAGS="-I ./postgres-REL_14_5/src/test/perl" PERL5LIB="/Users/runner/perl5/lib/perl5"
-      - run: make clean && /usr/local/opt/llvm@15/bin/scan-build --status-bugs make PG_CFLAGS="-DUSE_ASSERT_CHECKING"
+      - run: make clean && /usr/local/opt/llvm@15/bin/scan-build --status-bugs make
  windows:
    runs-on: windows-latest
    if: ${{ !startsWith(github.ref_name, 'mac') }}
--- a/CHANGELOG.md
+++ b/CHANGELOG.md
@@ -1,10 +1,6 @@
 ## 0.5.2 (unreleased)

- Improved performance of HNSW
- Added support for parallel index builds for HNSW
- Reduced memory usage for HNSW index builds
- Reduced WAL generation for HNSW index builds
- Fixed `invalid memory alloc request size` error with HNSW index build
+- Added support for on-disk parallel index builds for HNSW

 ## 0.5.1 (2023-10-10)

--- a/4
+++ b/4
@@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ EXTVERSION = 0.5.1

 MODULE_big = vector
 DATA = $(wildcard sql/*--*.sql)
-OBJS = src/hnsw.o src/hnswbuild.o src/hnswinsert.o src/hnswscan.o src/hnswutils.o src/hnswvacuum.o src/ivfbuild.o src/ivfflat.o src/ivfinsert.o src/ivfkmeans.o src/ivfscan.o src/ivfutils.o src/ivfvacuum.o src/vector.o
-HEADERS = src/vector.h
+OBJS = src/half.o src/hnsw.o src/hnswbuild.o src/hnswinsert.o src/hnswscan.o src/hnswutils.o src/hnswvacuum.o src/ivfbuild.o src/ivfflat.o src/ivfinsert.o src/ivfkmeans.o src/ivfscan.o src/ivfutils.o src/ivfvacuum.o src/vector.o
+HEADERS = src/half.h src/vector.h

 TESTS = $(wildcard test/sql/*.sql)
 REGRESS = $(patsubst test/sql/%.sql,%,$(TESTS))
--- a/Makefile.win
+++ b/Makefile.win
@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
 EXTENSION = vector
 EXTVERSION = 0.5.1

-OBJS = src\hnsw.obj src\hnswbuild.obj src\hnswinsert.obj src\hnswscan.obj src\hnswutils.obj src\hnswvacuum.obj src\ivfbuild.obj src\ivfflat.obj src\ivfinsert.obj src\ivfkmeans.obj src\ivfscan.obj src\ivfutils.obj src\ivfvacuum.obj src\vector.obj
-HEADERS = src\vector.h
+OBJS = src\half.obj src\hnsw.obj src\hnswbuild.obj src\hnswinsert.obj src\hnswscan.obj src\hnswutils.obj src\hnswvacuum.obj src\ivfbuild.obj src\ivfflat.obj src\ivfinsert.obj src\ivfkmeans.obj src\ivfscan.obj src\ivfutils.obj src\ivfvacuum.obj src\vector.obj
+HEADERS = src\half.h src\vector.h

 REGRESS = btree cast copy functions input ivfflat_cosine ivfflat_ip ivfflat_l2 ivfflat_options ivfflat_unlogged
 REGRESS_OPTS = --inputdir=test --load-extension=$(EXTENSION)
--- a/README.md
+++ b/README.md
@@ -161,97 +161,8 @@ You can add an index to use approximate nearest neighbor search, which trades so

 Supported index types are:

- [HNSW](#hnsw) - added in 0.5.0
 - [IVFFlat](#ivfflat)
-
-## HNSW
-
-An HNSW index creates a multilayer graph. It has better query performance than IVFFlat (in terms of speed-recall tradeoff), but has slower build times and uses more memory. Also, an index can be created without any data in the table since there isn’t a training step like IVFFlat.
-
-Add an index for each distance function you want to use.
-
-L2 distance
-
-```sql
-CREATE INDEX ON items USING hnsw (embedding vector_l2_ops);
-```
-
-Inner product
-
-```sql
-CREATE INDEX ON items USING hnsw (embedding vector_ip_ops);
-```
-
-Cosine distance
-
-```sql
-CREATE INDEX ON items USING hnsw (embedding vector_cosine_ops);
-```
-
-Vectors with up to 2,000 dimensions can be indexed.
-
-### Index Options
-
-Specify HNSW parameters
-
- `m` - the max number of connections per layer (16 by default)
- `ef_construction` - the size of the dynamic candidate list for constructing the graph (64 by default)
-
-```sql
-CREATE INDEX ON items USING hnsw (embedding vector_l2_ops) WITH (m = 16, ef_construction = 64);
-```
-
-A higher value of `ef_construction` provides better recall at the cost of index build time / insert speed.
-
-### Query Options
-
-Specify the size of the dynamic candidate list for search (40 by default)
-
-```sql
-SET hnsw.ef_search = 100;
-```
-
-A higher value provides better recall at the cost of speed.
-
-Use `SET LOCAL` inside a transaction to set it for a single query
-
-```sql
-BEGIN;
-SET LOCAL hnsw.ef_search = 100;
-SELECT ...
-COMMIT;
-```
-
-### Index Build Time
-
-Indexes build significantly faster when the graph fits into `maintenance_work_mem`
-
-```sql
-SET maintenance_work_mem = '8GB';
-```
-
-A notice is shown when the graph no longer fits
-
-```text
-NOTICE:  hnsw graph no longer fits into maintenance_work_mem after 100000 tuples
-DETAIL:  Building will take significantly more time.
-HINT:  Increase maintenance_work_mem to speed up builds.
-```
-
-Note: Do not set `maintenance_work_mem` so high that it exhausts the memory on the server
-
-### Indexing Progress
-
-Check [indexing progress](https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/progress-reporting.html#CREATE-INDEX-PROGRESS-REPORTING) with Postgres 12+
-
-```sql
-SELECT phase, round(100.0 * blocks_done / nullif(blocks_total, 0), 1) AS "%" FROM pg_stat_progress_create_index;
-```
-
-The phases for HNSW are:
-
-1. `initializing`
-2. `loading tuples`
+- [HNSW](#hnsw) - added in 0.5.0

 ## IVFFlat

@@ -321,6 +232,77 @@ The phases for IVFFlat are:

 Note: `%` is only populated during the `loading tuples` phase

+## HNSW
+
+An HNSW index creates a multilayer graph. It has slower build times and uses more memory than IVFFlat, but has better query performance (in terms of speed-recall tradeoff). There’s no training step like IVFFlat, so the index can be created without any data in the table.
+
+Add an index for each distance function you want to use.
+
+L2 distance
+
+```sql
+CREATE INDEX ON items USING hnsw (embedding vector_l2_ops);
+```
+
+Inner product
+
+```sql
+CREATE INDEX ON items USING hnsw (embedding vector_ip_ops);
+```
+
+Cosine distance
+
+```sql
+CREATE INDEX ON items USING hnsw (embedding vector_cosine_ops);
+```
+
+Vectors with up to 2,000 dimensions can be indexed.
+
+### Index Options
+
+Specify HNSW parameters
+
+- `m` - the max number of connections per layer (16 by default)
+- `ef_construction` - the size of the dynamic candidate list for constructing the graph (64 by default)
+
+```sql
+CREATE INDEX ON items USING hnsw (embedding vector_l2_ops) WITH (m = 16, ef_construction = 64);
+```
+
+A higher value of `ef_construction` provides better recall at the cost of index build time / insert speed.
+
+### Query Options
+
+Specify the size of the dynamic candidate list for search (40 by default)
+
+```sql
+SET hnsw.ef_search = 100;
+```
+
+A higher value provides better recall at the cost of speed.
+
+Use `SET LOCAL` inside a transaction to set it for a single query
+
+```sql
+BEGIN;
+SET LOCAL hnsw.ef_search = 100;
+SELECT ...
+COMMIT;
+```
+
+### Indexing Progress
+
+Check [indexing progress](https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/progress-reporting.html#CREATE-INDEX-PROGRESS-REPORTING) with Postgres 12+
+
+```sql
+SELECT phase, round(100.0 * blocks_done / nullif(blocks_total, 0), 1) AS "%" FROM pg_stat_progress_create_index;
+```
+
+The phases for HNSW are:
+
+1. `initializing`
+2. `loading tuples`
+
 ## Filtering

 There are a few ways to index nearest neighbor queries with a `WHERE` clause
@@ -338,7 +320,8 @@ CREATE INDEX ON items (category_id);
 Or a [partial index](https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/indexes-partial.html) on the vector column for approximate search

 ```sql
-CREATE INDEX ON items USING hnsw (embedding vector_l2_ops) WHERE (category_id = 123);
+CREATE INDEX ON items USING ivfflat (embedding vector_l2_ops) WITH (lists = 100)
+    WHERE (category_id = 123);
 ```

 Use [partitioning](https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/ddl-partitioning.html) for approximate search on many different values of the `WHERE` columns
@@ -588,10 +571,10 @@ If compilation fails with `fatal error: postgres.h: No such file or directory`,
 For Ubuntu and Debian, use:

 ```sh
-sudo apt install postgresql-server-dev-16
+sudo apt install postgresql-server-dev-15
 ```

-Note: Replace `16` with your Postgres server version
+Note: Replace `15` with your Postgres server version

 ### Windows

@@ -606,7 +589,7 @@ Note: The exact path will vary depending on your Visual Studio version and editi
 Then use `nmake` to build:

 ```cmd
-set "PGROOT=C:\Program Files\PostgreSQL\16"
+set "PGROOT=C:\Program Files\PostgreSQL\15"
 git clone --branch v0.5.1 https://github.com/pgvector/pgvector.git
 cd pgvector
 nmake /F Makefile.win
@@ -656,22 +639,22 @@ pgxn install vector
 Debian and Ubuntu packages are available from the [PostgreSQL APT Repository](https://wiki.postgresql.org/wiki/Apt). Follow the [setup instructions](https://wiki.postgresql.org/wiki/Apt#Quickstart) and run:

 ```sh
-sudo apt install postgresql-16-pgvector
+sudo apt install postgresql-15-pgvector
 ```

-Note: Replace `16` with your Postgres server version
+Note: Replace `15` with your Postgres server version

 ### Yum

 RPM packages are available from the [PostgreSQL Yum Repository](https://yum.postgresql.org/). Follow the [setup instructions](https://www.postgresql.org/download/linux/redhat/) for your distribution and run:

 ```sh
-sudo yum install pgvector_16
+sudo yum install pgvector_15
 # or
-sudo dnf install pgvector_16
+sudo dnf install pgvector_15
 ```

-Note: Replace `16` with your Postgres server version
+Note: Replace `15` with your Postgres server version

 ### conda-forge

--- a/sql/vector--0.5.1--0.6.0.sql
+++ b/sql/vector--0.5.1--0.6.0.sql
@@ -0,0 +1,82 @@
+-- complain if script is sourced in psql, rather than via CREATE EXTENSION
+\echo Use "ALTER EXTENSION vector UPDATE TO '0.6.0'" to load this file. \quit
+
+CREATE TYPE half;
+
+CREATE FUNCTION half_in(cstring, oid, integer) RETURNS half
+	AS 'MODULE_PATHNAME' LANGUAGE C IMMUTABLE STRICT PARALLEL SAFE;
+
+CREATE FUNCTION half_out(half) RETURNS cstring
+	AS 'MODULE_PATHNAME' LANGUAGE C IMMUTABLE STRICT PARALLEL SAFE;
+
+CREATE FUNCTION half_recv(internal, oid, integer) RETURNS half
+	AS 'MODULE_PATHNAME' LANGUAGE C IMMUTABLE STRICT PARALLEL SAFE;
+
+CREATE FUNCTION half_send(half) RETURNS bytea
+	AS 'MODULE_PATHNAME' LANGUAGE C IMMUTABLE STRICT PARALLEL SAFE;
+
+CREATE TYPE half (
+	INPUT     = half_in,
+	OUTPUT    = half_out,
+	RECEIVE   = half_recv,
+	SEND      = half_send,
+	INTERNALLENGTH = 2,
+	PASSEDBYVALUE,
+	ALIGNMENT = int2
+);
+
+CREATE FUNCTION l2_distance(half[], half[]) RETURNS float8
+	AS 'MODULE_PATHNAME', 'half_l2_distance' LANGUAGE C IMMUTABLE STRICT PARALLEL SAFE;
+
+CREATE FUNCTION inner_product(half[], half[]) RETURNS float8
+	AS 'MODULE_PATHNAME', 'half_inner_product' LANGUAGE C IMMUTABLE STRICT PARALLEL SAFE;
+
+CREATE FUNCTION cosine_distance(half[], half[]) RETURNS float8
+	AS 'MODULE_PATHNAME', 'half_cosine_distance' LANGUAGE C IMMUTABLE STRICT PARALLEL SAFE;
+
+CREATE FUNCTION l1_distance(half[], half[]) RETURNS float8
+	AS 'MODULE_PATHNAME', 'half_l1_distance' LANGUAGE C IMMUTABLE STRICT PARALLEL SAFE;
+
+CREATE FUNCTION half_l2_squared_distance(half[], half[]) RETURNS float8
+	AS 'MODULE_PATHNAME' LANGUAGE C IMMUTABLE STRICT PARALLEL SAFE;
+
+CREATE FUNCTION half_negative_inner_product(half[], half[]) RETURNS float8
+	AS 'MODULE_PATHNAME' LANGUAGE C IMMUTABLE STRICT PARALLEL SAFE;
+
+CREATE FUNCTION float4_to_half(real, integer, boolean) RETURNS half
+	AS 'MODULE_PATHNAME' LANGUAGE C IMMUTABLE STRICT PARALLEL SAFE;
+
+CREATE FUNCTION integer_to_half(integer, integer, boolean) RETURNS half
+	AS 'MODULE_PATHNAME' LANGUAGE C IMMUTABLE STRICT PARALLEL SAFE;
+
+CREATE FUNCTION numeric_to_half(numeric, integer, boolean) RETURNS half
+	AS 'MODULE_PATHNAME' LANGUAGE C IMMUTABLE STRICT PARALLEL SAFE;
+
+CREATE CAST (real AS half)
+	WITH FUNCTION float4_to_half(real, integer, boolean) AS IMPLICIT;
+
+CREATE CAST (integer AS half)
+	WITH FUNCTION integer_to_half(integer, integer, boolean) AS IMPLICIT;
+
+CREATE CAST (numeric AS half)
+	WITH FUNCTION numeric_to_half(numeric, integer, boolean) AS IMPLICIT;
+
+CREATE OPERATOR <-> (
+	LEFTARG = half[], RIGHTARG = half[], PROCEDURE = l2_distance,
+	COMMUTATOR = '<->'
+);
+
+CREATE OPERATOR <#> (
+	LEFTARG = half[], RIGHTARG = half[], PROCEDURE = half_negative_inner_product,
+	COMMUTATOR = '<#>'
+);
+
+CREATE OPERATOR <=> (
+	LEFTARG = half[], RIGHTARG = half[], PROCEDURE = cosine_distance,
+	COMMUTATOR = '<=>'
+);
+
+CREATE OPERATOR CLASS half_l2_ops
+	FOR TYPE half[] USING hnsw AS
+	OPERATOR 1 <-> (half[], half[]) FOR ORDER BY float_ops,
+	FUNCTION 1 half_l2_squared_distance(half[], half[]);
--- a/sql/vector.sql
+++ b/sql/vector.sql
@@ -290,3 +290,97 @@ CREATE OPERATOR CLASS vector_cosine_ops
 	OPERATOR 1 <=> (vector, vector) FOR ORDER BY float_ops,
 	FUNCTION 1 vector_negative_inner_product(vector, vector),
 	FUNCTION 2 vector_norm(vector);
+
+-- half type
+
+CREATE TYPE half;
+
+CREATE FUNCTION half_in(cstring, oid, integer) RETURNS half
+	AS 'MODULE_PATHNAME' LANGUAGE C IMMUTABLE STRICT PARALLEL SAFE;
+
+CREATE FUNCTION half_out(half) RETURNS cstring
+	AS 'MODULE_PATHNAME' LANGUAGE C IMMUTABLE STRICT PARALLEL SAFE;
+
+CREATE FUNCTION half_recv(internal, oid, integer) RETURNS half
+	AS 'MODULE_PATHNAME' LANGUAGE C IMMUTABLE STRICT PARALLEL SAFE;
+
+CREATE FUNCTION half_send(half) RETURNS bytea
+	AS 'MODULE_PATHNAME' LANGUAGE C IMMUTABLE STRICT PARALLEL SAFE;
+
+CREATE TYPE half (
+	INPUT     = half_in,
+	OUTPUT    = half_out,
+	RECEIVE   = half_recv,
+	SEND      = half_send,
+	INTERNALLENGTH = 2,
+	PASSEDBYVALUE,
+	ALIGNMENT = int2
+);
+
+-- half functions
+
+CREATE FUNCTION l2_distance(half[], half[]) RETURNS float8
+	AS 'MODULE_PATHNAME', 'half_l2_distance' LANGUAGE C IMMUTABLE STRICT PARALLEL SAFE;
+
+CREATE FUNCTION inner_product(half[], half[]) RETURNS float8
+	AS 'MODULE_PATHNAME', 'half_inner_product' LANGUAGE C IMMUTABLE STRICT PARALLEL SAFE;
+
+CREATE FUNCTION cosine_distance(half[], half[]) RETURNS float8
+	AS 'MODULE_PATHNAME', 'half_cosine_distance' LANGUAGE C IMMUTABLE STRICT PARALLEL SAFE;
+
+CREATE FUNCTION l1_distance(half[], half[]) RETURNS float8
+	AS 'MODULE_PATHNAME', 'half_l1_distance' LANGUAGE C IMMUTABLE STRICT PARALLEL SAFE;
+
+-- half private functions
+
+CREATE FUNCTION half_l2_squared_distance(half[], half[]) RETURNS float8
+	AS 'MODULE_PATHNAME' LANGUAGE C IMMUTABLE STRICT PARALLEL SAFE;
+
+CREATE FUNCTION half_negative_inner_product(half[], half[]) RETURNS float8
+	AS 'MODULE_PATHNAME' LANGUAGE C IMMUTABLE STRICT PARALLEL SAFE;
+
+-- half cast functions
+
+CREATE FUNCTION float4_to_half(real, integer, boolean) RETURNS half
+	AS 'MODULE_PATHNAME' LANGUAGE C IMMUTABLE STRICT PARALLEL SAFE;
+
+CREATE FUNCTION integer_to_half(integer, integer, boolean) RETURNS half
+	AS 'MODULE_PATHNAME' LANGUAGE C IMMUTABLE STRICT PARALLEL SAFE;
+
+CREATE FUNCTION numeric_to_half(numeric, integer, boolean) RETURNS half
+	AS 'MODULE_PATHNAME' LANGUAGE C IMMUTABLE STRICT PARALLEL SAFE;
+
+-- half casts
+
+CREATE CAST (real AS half)
+	WITH FUNCTION float4_to_half(real, integer, boolean) AS IMPLICIT;
+
+CREATE CAST (integer AS half)
+	WITH FUNCTION integer_to_half(integer, integer, boolean) AS IMPLICIT;
+
+CREATE CAST (numeric AS half)
+	WITH FUNCTION numeric_to_half(numeric, integer, boolean) AS IMPLICIT;
+
+-- half operators
+
+CREATE OPERATOR <-> (
+	LEFTARG = half[], RIGHTARG = half[], PROCEDURE = l2_distance,
+	COMMUTATOR = '<->'
+);
+
+CREATE OPERATOR <#> (
+	LEFTARG = half[], RIGHTARG = half[], PROCEDURE = half_negative_inner_product,
+	COMMUTATOR = '<#>'
+);
+
+CREATE OPERATOR <=> (
+	LEFTARG = half[], RIGHTARG = half[], PROCEDURE = cosine_distance,
+	COMMUTATOR = '<=>'
+);
+
+-- half opclasses
+
+CREATE OPERATOR CLASS half_l2_ops
+	FOR TYPE half[] USING hnsw AS
+	OPERATOR 1 <-> (half[], half[]) FOR ORDER BY float_ops,
+	FUNCTION 1 half_l2_squared_distance(half[], half[]);
--- a/src/half.c
+++ b/src/half.c
@@ -0,0 +1,599 @@
+#include "postgres.h"
+
+#include <math.h>
+
+#include "common/shortest_dec.h"
+#include "fmgr.h"
+#include "half.h"
+#include "lib/stringinfo.h"
+#include "libpq/pqformat.h"
+#include "utils/array.h"
+#include "utils/builtins.h"
+#include "utils/float.h"
+#include "utils/numeric.h"
+
+#if PG_VERSION_NUM < 120003
+static pg_noinline void
+float_overflow_error(void)
+{
+	ereport(ERROR,
+			(errcode(ERRCODE_NUMERIC_VALUE_OUT_OF_RANGE),
+			 errmsg("value out of range: overflow")));
+}
+
+static pg_noinline void
+float_underflow_error(void)
+{
+	ereport(ERROR,
+			(errcode(ERRCODE_NUMERIC_VALUE_OUT_OF_RANGE),
+			 errmsg("value out of range: underflow")));
+}
+#endif
+
+/*
+ * Check if array is a vector
+ */
+static void
+CheckArrayIsVector(ArrayType *array)
+{
+	if (ARR_NDIM(array) > 1)
+		ereport(ERROR,
+				(errcode(ERRCODE_DATA_EXCEPTION),
+				 errmsg("array must be 1-D")));
+
+	if (ARR_HASNULL(array) && array_contains_nulls(array))
+		ereport(ERROR,
+				(errcode(ERRCODE_NULL_VALUE_NOT_ALLOWED),
+				 errmsg("array must not contain nulls")));
+}
+
+/*
+ * Check if dimensions are the same
+ */
+static int
+CheckDims(ArrayType *a, ArrayType *b)
+{
+	int			dima;
+	int			dimb;
+
+	CheckArrayIsVector(a);
+	CheckArrayIsVector(b);
+
+	dima = ARR_DIMS(a)[0];
+	dimb = ARR_DIMS(b)[0];
+
+	if (dima != dimb)
+		ereport(ERROR,
+				(errcode(ERRCODE_DATA_EXCEPTION),
+				 errmsg("different dimensions %d and %d", dima, dimb)));
+
+	return dima;
+}
+
+/*
+ * Return the datum representation for a half
+ */
+static inline Datum
+HalfGetDatum(half X)
+{
+	union
+	{
+		half		value;
+		int16		retval;
+	}			myunion;
+
+	myunion.value = X;
+	return Int16GetDatum(myunion.retval);
+}
+
+/*
+ * Return the half value of a datum
+ */
+static inline half
+DatumGetHalf(Datum X)
+{
+	union
+	{
+		int16		value;
+		half		retval;
+	}			myunion;
+
+	myunion.value = DatumGetInt16(X);
+	return myunion.retval;
+}
+
+/*
+ * Append a half to a StringInfo buffer
+ */
+static half
+pq_getmsghalf(StringInfo msg)
+{
+	union
+	{
+		half		h;
+		uint16		i;
+	}			swap;
+
+	/* TODO Likely use float4 for clients */
+	swap.i = pq_getmsgint(msg, 2);
+	return swap.h;
+}
+
+/*
+ * Get a half from a message buffer
+ */
+static void
+pq_sendhalf(StringInfo buf, half h)
+{
+	union
+	{
+		half		h;
+		uint16		i;
+	}			swap;
+
+	/* TODO Likely use float4 for clients */
+	swap.h = h;
+	pq_sendint16(buf, swap.i);
+}
+
+/*
+ * Convert a half to a float4
+ */
+static float
+HalfToFloat4(half num)
+{
+#ifdef FLT16_SUPPORT
+	return (float) num;
+#else
+	/* TODO Improve performance */
+	/* TODO Check endianness */
+	uint16		bin = *((uint16 *) &num);
+	uint32		exponent = (bin & 0x7C00) >> 10;
+	uint32		mantissa = bin & 0x03FF;
+
+	/* Sign */
+	uint32		result = (bin & 0x8000) << 16;
+
+	if (exponent == 31)
+	{
+		if (mantissa == 0)
+		{
+			/* Infinite */
+			result |= 0x7F800000;
+		}
+		else
+		{
+			/* NaN */
+			result |= 0x7FC00000;
+			result |= mantissa << 13;
+		}
+	}
+	else if (exponent == 0)
+	{
+		/* Subnormal */
+		if (mantissa != 0)
+		{
+			exponent = -14;
+
+			for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++)
+			{
+				mantissa <<= 1;
+				exponent -= 1;
+
+				if ((mantissa >> 10) % 2 == 1)
+				{
+					mantissa &= 0x03ff;
+					break;
+				}
+			}
+
+			result |= (exponent + 127) << 23;
+			result |= mantissa << 13;
+		}
+	}
+	else
+	{
+		/* Normal */
+		result |= (exponent - 15 + 127) << 23;
+		result |= mantissa << 13;
+	}
+
+	return *((float *) &result);
+#endif
+}
+
+/*
+ * Convert a float4 to a half
+ */
+static half
+Float4ToHalfUnchecked(float num)
+{
+#ifdef FLT16_SUPPORT
+	return (_Float16) num;
+#else
+	/* TODO Improve performance */
+	/* TODO Check endianness */
+	uint32		bin = *((uint32 *) &num);
+	int			exponent = (bin & 0x7F800000) >> 23;
+	int			mantissa = bin & 0x007FFFFF;
+
+	/* Sign */
+	uint16		result = (bin & 0x80000000) >> 16;
+
+	if (isinf(num))
+	{
+		/* Infinite */
+		result |= 0x7C00;
+	}
+	else if (isnan(num))
+	{
+		/* NaN */
+		result |= 0x7E00;
+		result |= mantissa >> 13;
+	}
+	else if (exponent > 98)
+	{
+		int			m;
+		int			gr;
+		int			s;
+
+		exponent -= 127;
+		s = mantissa & 0x00000FFF;
+
+		/* Subnormal */
+		if (exponent < -14)
+		{
+			int			diff = -exponent - 14;
+
+			mantissa >>= diff;
+			mantissa += 1 << (23 - diff);
+			s |= mantissa & 0x00000FFF;
+		}
+
+		m = mantissa >> 13;
+
+		/* Round */
+		gr = (mantissa >> 12) % 4;
+		if (gr == 3 || (gr == 1 && s != 0))
+			m += 1;
+
+		if (m == 1024)
+		{
+			m = 0;
+			exponent += 1;
+		}
+
+		if (exponent > 15)
+		{
+			/* Infinite */
+			result |= 0x7C00;
+		}
+		else
+		{
+			if (exponent >= -14)
+				result |= (exponent + 15) << 10;
+
+			result |= m;
+		}
+	}
+
+	return *((half *) & result);
+#endif
+}
+
+/*
+ * Convert a float4 to a half
+ */
+static half
+Float4ToHalf(float num)
+{
+	half		result = Float4ToHalfUnchecked(num);
+
+	/* TODO Perform checks without HalfToFloat4 */
+	if (unlikely(isinf(HalfToFloat4(result))) && !isinf(num))
+		float_overflow_error();
+	if (unlikely(HalfToFloat4(result) == 0.0f) && num != 0.0)
+		float_underflow_error();
+
+	return result;
+}
+
+/*
+ * Convert textual representation to internal representation
+ */
+PGDLLEXPORT PG_FUNCTION_INFO_V1(half_in);
+Datum
+half_in(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
+{
+	char	   *num = PG_GETARG_CSTRING(0);
+	char	   *orig_num;
+	float		val;
+	char	   *endptr;
+
+	orig_num = num;
+
+	/* Skip leading whitespace */
+	while (*num != '\0' && isspace((unsigned char) *num))
+		num++;
+
+	/*
+	 * Check for an empty-string input to begin with, to avoid the vagaries of
+	 * strtof() on different platforms.
+	 */
+	if (*num == '\0')
+		ereport(ERROR,
+				(errcode(ERRCODE_INVALID_TEXT_REPRESENTATION),
+				 errmsg("invalid input syntax for type %s: \"%s\"",
+						"half", orig_num)));
+
+	val = strtof(num, &endptr);
+
+	if (val < -HALF_MAX || val > HALF_MAX)
+		ereport(ERROR,
+				(errcode(ERRCODE_NUMERIC_VALUE_OUT_OF_RANGE),
+				 errmsg("\"%s\" is out of range for type %s",
+						orig_num, "half")));
+
+	/* Skip trailing whitespace */
+	while (*endptr != '\0' && isspace((unsigned char) *endptr))
+		endptr++;
+
+	/* If there is any junk left at the end of the string, bail out */
+	if (*endptr != '\0')
+		ereport(ERROR,
+				(errcode(ERRCODE_INVALID_TEXT_REPRESENTATION),
+				 errmsg("invalid input syntax for type %s: \"%s\"",
+						"half", orig_num)));
+
+	PG_RETURN_HALF(Float4ToHalf(val));
+}
+
+/*
+ * Convert internal representation to textual representation
+ */
+PGDLLEXPORT PG_FUNCTION_INFO_V1(half_out);
+Datum
+half_out(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
+{
+	float		num = HalfToFloat4(PG_GETARG_HALF(0));
+	char	   *ascii = (char *) palloc(32);
+	int			ndig = FLT_DIG + extra_float_digits;
+
+	if (extra_float_digits > 0)
+	{
+		float_to_shortest_decimal_buf(num, ascii);
+		PG_RETURN_CSTRING(ascii);
+	}
+
+	(void) pg_strfromd(ascii, 32, ndig, num);
+	PG_RETURN_CSTRING(ascii);
+}
+
+/*
+ * Convert external binary representation to internal representation
+ */
+PGDLLEXPORT PG_FUNCTION_INFO_V1(half_recv);
+Datum
+half_recv(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
+{
+	StringInfo	buf = (StringInfo) PG_GETARG_POINTER(0);
+
+	PG_RETURN_HALF(pq_getmsghalf(buf));
+}
+
+/*
+ * Convert internal representation to the external binary representation
+ */
+PGDLLEXPORT PG_FUNCTION_INFO_V1(half_send);
+Datum
+half_send(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
+{
+	half		arg1 = PG_GETARG_HALF(0);
+	StringInfoData buf;
+
+	pq_begintypsend(&buf);
+	pq_sendhalf(&buf, arg1);
+	PG_RETURN_BYTEA_P(pq_endtypsend(&buf));
+}
+
+/*
+ * Convert integer to half
+ */
+PGDLLEXPORT PG_FUNCTION_INFO_V1(integer_to_half);
+Datum
+integer_to_half(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
+{
+	int32		i = PG_GETARG_INT32(0);
+
+	/* TODO Figure out correct error */
+	float		f = (float) i;
+	half		h = Float4ToHalf(f);
+
+	PG_RETURN_HALF(h);
+}
+
+/*
+ * Convert numeric to half
+ */
+PGDLLEXPORT PG_FUNCTION_INFO_V1(numeric_to_half);
+Datum
+numeric_to_half(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
+{
+	Numeric		num = PG_GETARG_NUMERIC(0);
+	float		f = DatumGetFloat4(DirectFunctionCall1(numeric_float4, NumericGetDatum(num)));
+	half		h = Float4ToHalf(f);
+
+	PG_RETURN_HALF(h);
+}
+
+/*
+ * Convert float4 to half
+ */
+PGDLLEXPORT PG_FUNCTION_INFO_V1(float4_to_half);
+Datum
+float4_to_half(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
+{
+	float		f = PG_GETARG_FLOAT4(0);
+	half		h = Float4ToHalf(f);
+
+	PG_RETURN_HALF(h);
+}
+
+/*
+ * Get the L2 distance between half arrays
+ */
+PGDLLEXPORT PG_FUNCTION_INFO_V1(half_l2_distance);
+Datum
+half_l2_distance(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
+{
+	ArrayType  *a = PG_GETARG_ARRAYTYPE_P(0);
+	ArrayType  *b = PG_GETARG_ARRAYTYPE_P(1);
+	half	   *ax = (half *) ARR_DATA_PTR(a);
+	half	   *bx = (half *) ARR_DATA_PTR(b);
+	float		distance = 0.0;
+	int			dim = CheckDims(a, b);
+
+	/* Auto-vectorized */
+	for (int i = 0; i < dim; i++)
+	{
+		float		diff = HalfToFloat4(ax[i]) - HalfToFloat4(bx[i]);
+
+		distance += diff * diff;
+	}
+
+	PG_RETURN_FLOAT8(sqrt((double) distance));
+}
+
+/*
+ * Get the L2 squared distance between half arrays
+ */
+PGDLLEXPORT PG_FUNCTION_INFO_V1(half_l2_squared_distance);
+Datum
+half_l2_squared_distance(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
+{
+	ArrayType  *a = PG_GETARG_ARRAYTYPE_P(0);
+	ArrayType  *b = PG_GETARG_ARRAYTYPE_P(1);
+	half	   *ax = (half *) ARR_DATA_PTR(a);
+	half	   *bx = (half *) ARR_DATA_PTR(b);
+	float		distance = 0.0;
+	int			dim = CheckDims(a, b);
+
+	/* Auto-vectorized */
+	for (int i = 0; i < dim; i++)
+	{
+		float		diff = HalfToFloat4(ax[i]) - HalfToFloat4(bx[i]);
+
+		distance += diff * diff;
+	}
+
+	PG_RETURN_FLOAT8((double) distance);
+}
+
+/*
+ * Get the inner product of two half arrays
+ */
+PGDLLEXPORT PG_FUNCTION_INFO_V1(half_inner_product);
+Datum
+half_inner_product(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
+{
+	ArrayType  *a = PG_GETARG_ARRAYTYPE_P(0);
+	ArrayType  *b = PG_GETARG_ARRAYTYPE_P(1);
+	half	   *ax = (half *) ARR_DATA_PTR(a);
+	half	   *bx = (half *) ARR_DATA_PTR(b);
+	float		distance = 0.0;
+	int			dim = CheckDims(a, b);
+
+	/* Auto-vectorized */
+	for (int i = 0; i < dim; i++)
+		distance += HalfToFloat4(ax[i]) * HalfToFloat4(bx[i]);
+
+	PG_RETURN_FLOAT8((double) distance);
+}
+
+/*
+ * Get the negative inner product of two half arrays
+ */
+PGDLLEXPORT PG_FUNCTION_INFO_V1(half_negative_inner_product);
+Datum
+half_negative_inner_product(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
+{
+	ArrayType  *a = PG_GETARG_ARRAYTYPE_P(0);
+	ArrayType  *b = PG_GETARG_ARRAYTYPE_P(1);
+	half	   *ax = (half *) ARR_DATA_PTR(a);
+	half	   *bx = (half *) ARR_DATA_PTR(b);
+	float		distance = 0.0;
+	int			dim = CheckDims(a, b);
+
+	/* Auto-vectorized */
+	for (int i = 0; i < dim; i++)
+		distance += HalfToFloat4(ax[i]) * HalfToFloat4(bx[i]);
+
+	PG_RETURN_FLOAT8((double) distance * -1);
+}
+
+/*
+ * Get the cosine distance between two half arrays
+ */
+PGDLLEXPORT PG_FUNCTION_INFO_V1(half_cosine_distance);
+Datum
+half_cosine_distance(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
+{
+	ArrayType  *a = PG_GETARG_ARRAYTYPE_P(0);
+	ArrayType  *b = PG_GETARG_ARRAYTYPE_P(1);
+	half	   *ax = (half *) ARR_DATA_PTR(a);
+	half	   *bx = (half *) ARR_DATA_PTR(b);
+	float		distance = 0.0;
+	float		norma = 0.0;
+	float		normb = 0.0;
+	double		similarity;
+	int			dim = CheckDims(a, b);
+
+	/* Auto-vectorized */
+	for (int i = 0; i < dim; i++)
+	{
+		float		axi = HalfToFloat4(ax[i]);
+		float		bxi = HalfToFloat4(bx[i]);
+
+		distance += axi * bxi;
+		norma += axi * axi;
+		normb += bxi * bxi;
+	}
+
+	/* Use sqrt(a * b) over sqrt(a) * sqrt(b) */
+	similarity = (double) distance / sqrt((double) norma * (double) normb);
+
+#ifdef _MSC_VER
+	/* /fp:fast may not propagate NaN */
+	if (isnan(similarity))
+		PG_RETURN_FLOAT8(NAN);
+#endif
+
+	/* Keep in range */
+	if (similarity > 1)
+		similarity = 1;
+	else if (similarity < -1)
+		similarity = -1;
+
+	PG_RETURN_FLOAT8(1 - similarity);
+}
+
+/*
+ * Get the L1 distance between two half arrays
+ */
+PGDLLEXPORT PG_FUNCTION_INFO_V1(half_l1_distance);
+Datum
+half_l1_distance(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
+{
+	ArrayType  *a = PG_GETARG_ARRAYTYPE_P(0);
+	ArrayType  *b = PG_GETARG_ARRAYTYPE_P(1);
+	half	   *ax = (half *) ARR_DATA_PTR(a);
+	half	   *bx = (half *) ARR_DATA_PTR(b);
+	float		distance = 0.0;
+	int			dim = CheckDims(a, b);
+
+	/* Auto-vectorized */
+	for (int i = 0; i < dim; i++)
+		distance += fabsf(HalfToFloat4(ax[i]) - HalfToFloat4(bx[i]));
+
+	PG_RETURN_FLOAT8((double) distance);
+}
--- a/src/half.h
+++ b/src/half.h
@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+#ifndef HALF_H
+#define HALF_H
+
+#define __STDC_WANT_IEC_60559_TYPES_EXT__
+
+#include <float.h>
+
+/* _Float16 and __fp16 are not supported on x86_64 with GCC 11 */
+#if defined(__is_identifier)
+#if __is_identifier(_Float16)
+#define FLT16_SUPPORT
+#endif
+#elif defined(FLT16_MAX)
+#define FLT16_SUPPORT
+#endif
+
+#ifdef FLT16_SUPPORT
+#define half _Float16
+#define HALF_MAX FLT16_MAX
+#else
+#define half uint16
+#define HALF_MAX 65504
+#endif
+
+#define PG_GETARG_HALF(n)  DatumGetHalf(PG_GETARG_DATUM(n))
+#define PG_RETURN_HALF(x)  return HalfGetDatum(x)
+
+#endif
--- a/src/hnsw.c
+++ b/src/hnsw.c
@@ -14,45 +14,15 @@
 #endif

 int			hnsw_ef_search;
-int			hnsw_lock_tranche_id;
+bool		hnsw_enable_parallel_build;
 static relopt_kind hnsw_relopt_kind;

-/*
- * Assign a tranche ID for our LWLocks. This only needs to be done by one
- * backend, as the tranche ID is remembered in shared memory.
- *
- * This shared memory area is very small, so we just allocate it from the
- * "slop" that PostgreSQL reserves for small allocations like this. If
- * this grows bigger, we should use a shmem_request_hook and
- * RequestAddinShmemSpace() to pre-reserve space for this.
- */
-static void
-HnswInitLockTranche(void)
-{
-	int		   *tranche_ids;
-	bool		found;
-
-	LWLockAcquire(AddinShmemInitLock, LW_EXCLUSIVE);
-	tranche_ids = ShmemInitStruct("hnsw LWLock ids",
-								  sizeof(int) * 1,
-								  &found);
-	if (!found)
-		tranche_ids[0] = LWLockNewTrancheId();
-	hnsw_lock_tranche_id = tranche_ids[0];
-	LWLockRelease(AddinShmemInitLock);
-
-	/* Per-backend registration of the tranche ID */
-	LWLockRegisterTranche(hnsw_lock_tranche_id, "HnswBuild");
-}
-
 /*
 * Initialize index options and variables
 */
 void
 HnswInit(void)
 {
-	HnswInitLockTranche();
-
 	hnsw_relopt_kind = add_reloption_kind();
 	add_int_reloption(hnsw_relopt_kind, "m", "Max number of connections",
 					  HNSW_DEFAULT_M, HNSW_MIN_M, HNSW_MAX_M
@@ -70,6 +40,11 @@ HnswInit(void)
 	DefineCustomIntVariable("hnsw.ef_search", "Sets the size of the dynamic candidate list for search",
 							"Valid range is 1..1000.", &hnsw_ef_search,
 							HNSW_DEFAULT_EF_SEARCH, HNSW_MIN_EF_SEARCH, HNSW_MAX_EF_SEARCH, PGC_USERSET, 0, NULL, NULL, NULL);
+
+	/* Behind a variable for now since can be slower than building in memory */
+	DefineCustomBoolVariable("hnsw.enable_parallel_build", "Enables or disables building indexes in parallel",
+							 NULL, &hnsw_enable_parallel_build,
+							 false, PGC_USERSET, 0, NULL, NULL, NULL);
 }

 /*
--- a/src/hnsw.h
+++ b/src/hnsw.h
@@ -8,7 +8,6 @@
 #include "access/reloptions.h"
 #include "nodes/execnodes.h"
 #include "port.h"				/* for random() */
-#include "utils/relptr.h"
 #include "utils/sampling.h"
 #include "vector.h"

@@ -73,10 +72,8 @@

 #if PG_VERSION_NUM >= 150000
 #define RandomDouble() pg_prng_double(&pg_global_prng_state)
-#define SeedRandom(seed) pg_prng_seed(&pg_global_prng_state, seed)
 #else
 #define RandomDouble() (((double) random()) / MAX_RANDOM_VALUE)
-#define SeedRandom(seed) srandom(seed)
 #endif

 #if PG_VERSION_NUM < 130000
@@ -94,64 +91,32 @@
 #define HnswGetMl(m) (1 / log(m))

 /* Ensure fits on page and in uint8 */
-#define HnswGetMaxLevel(m) Min(((BLCKSZ - MAXALIGN(SizeOfPageHeaderData) - MAXALIGN(sizeof(HnswPageOpaqueData)) - offsetof(HnswNeighborTupleData, indextids) - sizeof(ItemIdData)) / (sizeof(ItemPointerData)) / (m)) - 2, 255)
-
-#define HnswGetValue(base, element) PointerGetDatum(HnswPtrAccess(base, (element)->value))
-
-#if PG_VERSION_NUM < 140005
-#define relptr_offset(rp) ((rp).relptr_off - 1)
-#endif
-
-/* Pointer macros */
-#define HnswPtrAccess(base, hp) ((base) == NULL ? (hp).ptr : relptr_access(base, (hp).relptr))
-#define HnswPtrStore(base, hp, value) ((base) == NULL ? (void) ((hp).ptr = (value)) : (void) relptr_store(base, (hp).relptr, value))
-#define HnswPtrIsNull(base, hp) ((base) == NULL ? (hp).ptr == NULL : relptr_is_null((hp).relptr))
-#define HnswPtrEqual(base, hp1, hp2) ((base) == NULL ? (hp1).ptr == (hp2).ptr : relptr_offset((hp1).relptr) == relptr_offset((hp2).relptr))
-
-/* For code paths dedicated to each type */
-#define HnswPtrPointer(hp) (hp).ptr
-#define HnswPtrOffset(hp) relptr_offset((hp).relptr)
+#define HnswGetMaxLevel(m) Min(((BLCKSZ - MAXALIGN(SizeOfPageHeaderData) - MAXALIGN(sizeof(HnswPageOpaqueData)) - offsetof(HnswNeighborTupleData, indextids) - sizeof(ItemIdData)) / (sizeof(ItemPointerData)) / m) - 2, 255)

 /* Variables */
 extern int	hnsw_ef_search;
-extern int	hnsw_lock_tranche_id;
+extern bool hnsw_enable_parallel_build;

-typedef struct HnswElementData HnswElementData;
 typedef struct HnswNeighborArray HnswNeighborArray;

-#define HnswPtrDeclare(type, relptrtype, ptrtype) \
-	relptr_declare(type, relptrtype); \
-	typedef union { type *ptr; relptrtype relptr; } ptrtype;
-
-/* Pointers that can be absolute or relative */
-/* Use char for DatumPtr so works with Pointer */
-HnswPtrDeclare(HnswElementData, HnswElementRelptr, HnswElementPtr);
-HnswPtrDeclare(HnswNeighborArray, HnswNeighborArrayRelptr, HnswNeighborArrayPtr);
-HnswPtrDeclare(HnswNeighborArrayPtr, HnswNeighborsRelptr, HnswNeighborsPtr);
-HnswPtrDeclare(char, DatumRelptr, DatumPtr);
-
 typedef struct HnswElementData
 {
-	HnswElementPtr next;
-	ItemPointerData heaptids[HNSW_HEAPTIDS];
-	uint8		heaptidsLength;
+	List	   *heaptids;
 	uint8		level;
 	uint8		deleted;
-	uint32		hash;
-	HnswNeighborsPtr neighbors;
+	HnswNeighborArray *neighbors;
 	BlockNumber blkno;
 	OffsetNumber offno;
 	OffsetNumber neighborOffno;
 	BlockNumber neighborPage;
-	DatumPtr	value;
-	LWLock		lock;
+	Datum		value;
 }			HnswElementData;

 typedef HnswElementData * HnswElement;

 typedef struct HnswCandidate
 {
-	HnswElementPtr element;
+	HnswElement element;
 	float		distance;
 	bool		closer;
 }			HnswCandidate;
@@ -160,7 +125,7 @@ typedef struct HnswNeighborArray
 {
 	int			length;
 	bool		closerSet;
-	HnswCandidate items[FLEXIBLE_ARRAY_MEMBER];
+	HnswCandidate *items;
 }			HnswNeighborArray;

 typedef struct HnswPairingHeapNode
@@ -177,26 +142,11 @@ typedef struct HnswOptions
 	int			efConstruction; /* size of dynamic candidate list */
 }			HnswOptions;

-typedef struct HnswGraph
+typedef struct HnswSpool
 {
-	/* Graph state */
-	slock_t		lock;
-	HnswElementPtr head;
-	double		indtuples;
-
-	/* Entry state */
-	LWLock		entryLock;
-	HnswElementPtr entryPoint;
-
-	/* Allocations state */
-	LWLock		allocatorLock;
-	long		memoryUsed;
-	long		memoryTotal;
-
-	/* Flushed state */
-	LWLock		flushLock;
-	bool		flushed;
-}			HnswGraph;
+	Relation	heap;
+	Relation	index;
+}			HnswSpool;

 typedef struct HnswShared
 {
@@ -204,6 +154,7 @@ typedef struct HnswShared
 	Oid			heaprelid;
 	Oid			indexrelid;
 	bool		isconcurrent;
+	int			scantuplesortstates;

 	/* Worker progress */
 	ConditionVariable workersdonecv;
@@ -214,7 +165,7 @@ typedef struct HnswShared
 	/* Mutable state */
 	int			nparticipantsdone;
 	double		reltuples;
-	HnswGraph	graphData;
+	double		indtuples;

 #if PG_VERSION_NUM < 120000
 	ParallelHeapScanDescData heapdesc;	/* must come last */
@@ -232,15 +183,8 @@ typedef struct HnswLeader
 	int			nparticipanttuplesorts;
 	HnswShared *hnswshared;
 	Snapshot	snapshot;
-	char	   *hnswarea;
 }			HnswLeader;

-typedef struct HnswAllocator
-{
-	void	   *(*alloc) (Size size, void *state);
-	void	   *state;
-}			HnswAllocator;
-
 typedef struct HnswBuildState
 {
 	/* Info */
@@ -264,21 +208,20 @@ typedef struct HnswBuildState
 	Oid			collation;

 	/* Variables */
-	HnswGraph	graphData;
-	HnswGraph  *graph;
+	List	   *elements;
+	HnswElement entryPoint;
 	double		ml;
 	int			maxLevel;
+	long		memoryLeft;
+	bool		flushed;
 	Vector	   *normvec;

 	/* Memory */
-	MemoryContext graphCtx;
 	MemoryContext tmpCtx;
-	HnswAllocator allocator;

 	/* Parallel builds */
 	HnswLeader *hnswleader;
 	HnswShared *hnswshared;
-	char	   *hnswarea;
 }			HnswBuildState;

 typedef struct HnswMetaPageData
@@ -360,7 +303,7 @@ typedef struct HnswVacuumState
 	Oid			collation;

 	/* Variables */
-	struct tidhash_hash *deleted;
+	HTAB	   *deleted;
 	BufferAccessStrategy bas;
 	HnswNeighborTuple ntup;
 	HnswElementData highestPoint;
@@ -374,27 +317,30 @@ int			HnswGetM(Relation index);
 int			HnswGetEfConstruction(Relation index);
 FmgrInfo   *HnswOptionalProcInfo(Relation index, uint16 procnum);
 bool		HnswNormValue(FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, Datum *value, Vector * result);
+void		HnswCommitBuffer(Buffer buf, GenericXLogState *state);
 Buffer		HnswNewBuffer(Relation index, ForkNumber forkNum);
 void		HnswInitPage(Buffer buf, Page page);
+void		HnswInitRegisterPage(Relation index, Buffer *buf, Page *page, GenericXLogState **state);
 void		HnswInit(void);
-List	   *HnswSearchLayer(char *base, Datum q, List *ep, int ef, int lc, Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, int m, bool inserting, HnswElement skipElement);
+List	   *HnswSearchLayer(Datum q, List *ep, int ef, int lc, Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, int m, bool inserting, HnswElement skipElement);
 HnswElement HnswGetEntryPoint(Relation index);
 void		HnswGetMetaPageInfo(Relation index, int *m, HnswElement * entryPoint);
-void	   *HnswAlloc(HnswAllocator * allocator, Size size);
-HnswElement HnswInitElement(char *base, ItemPointer tid, int m, double ml, int maxLevel, HnswAllocator * alloc);
+HnswElement HnswInitElement(ItemPointer tid, int m, double ml, int maxLevel);
+void		HnswFreeElement(HnswElement element);
 HnswElement HnswInitElementFromBlock(BlockNumber blkno, OffsetNumber offno);
-void		HnswFindElementNeighbors(char *base, HnswElement element, HnswElement entryPoint, Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, int m, int efConstruction, bool existing);
-HnswCandidate *HnswEntryCandidate(char *base, HnswElement em, Datum q, Relation rel, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, bool loadVec);
-void		HnswUpdateMetaPage(Relation index, int updateEntry, HnswElement entryPoint, BlockNumber insertPage, ForkNumber forkNum, bool building);
-void		HnswSetNeighborTuple(char *base, HnswNeighborTuple ntup, HnswElement e, int m);
+void		HnswInsertElement(HnswElement element, HnswElement entryPoint, Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, int m, int efConstruction, bool existing);
+HnswElement HnswFindDuplicate(HnswElement e);
+HnswCandidate *HnswEntryCandidate(HnswElement em, Datum q, Relation rel, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, bool loadVec);
+void		HnswUpdateMetaPage(Relation index, int updateEntry, HnswElement entryPoint, BlockNumber insertPage, ForkNumber forkNum);
+void		HnswSetNeighborTuple(HnswNeighborTuple ntup, HnswElement e, int m);
 void		HnswAddHeapTid(HnswElement element, ItemPointer heaptid);
-void		HnswInitNeighbors(char *base, HnswElement element, int m, HnswAllocator * alloc);
-bool		HnswInsertTupleOnDisk(Relation index, Datum value, Datum *values, bool *isnull, ItemPointer heap_tid, Relation heapRel, bool building);
-void		HnswUpdateNeighborsOnDisk(Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, HnswElement e, int m, bool checkExisting, bool building);
+void		HnswInitNeighbors(HnswElement element, int m);
+bool		HnswInsertTuple(Relation index, Datum *values, bool *isnull, ItemPointer heap_tid, Relation heapRel);
+void		HnswUpdateNeighborPages(Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, HnswElement e, int m, bool checkExisting);
 void		HnswLoadElementFromTuple(HnswElement element, HnswElementTuple etup, bool loadHeaptids, bool loadVec);
 void		HnswLoadElement(HnswElement element, float *distance, Datum *q, Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, bool loadVec);
-void		HnswSetElementTuple(char *base, HnswElementTuple etup, HnswElement element);
-void		HnswUpdateConnection(char *base, HnswElement element, HnswCandidate * hc, int m, int lc, int *updateIdx, Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation);
+void		HnswSetElementTuple(HnswElementTuple etup, HnswElement element);
+void		HnswUpdateConnection(HnswElement element, HnswCandidate * hc, int m, int lc, int *updateIdx, Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation);
 void		HnswLoadNeighbors(HnswElement element, Relation index, int m);
 PGDLLEXPORT void HnswParallelBuildMain(dsm_segment *seg, shm_toc *toc);

@@ -414,54 +360,4 @@ void		hnswrescan(IndexScanDesc scan, ScanKey keys, int nkeys, ScanKey orderbys,
 bool		hnswgettuple(IndexScanDesc scan, ScanDirection dir);
 void		hnswendscan(IndexScanDesc scan);

-static inline HnswNeighborArray *
-HnswGetNeighbors(char *base, HnswElement element, int lc)
-{
-	HnswNeighborArrayPtr *neighborList = HnswPtrAccess(base, element->neighbors);
-
-	Assert(element->level >= lc);
-
-	return HnswPtrAccess(base, neighborList[lc]);
-}
-
-/* Hash tables */
-typedef struct TidHashEntry
-{
-	ItemPointerData tid;
-	char		status;
-}			TidHashEntry;
-
-#define SH_PREFIX tidhash
-#define SH_ELEMENT_TYPE TidHashEntry
-#define SH_KEY_TYPE ItemPointerData
-#define SH_SCOPE extern
-#define SH_DECLARE
-#include "lib/simplehash.h"
-
-typedef struct PointerHashEntry
-{
-	uintptr_t	ptr;
-	char		status;
-}			PointerHashEntry;
-
-#define SH_PREFIX pointerhash
-#define SH_ELEMENT_TYPE PointerHashEntry
-#define SH_KEY_TYPE uintptr_t
-#define SH_SCOPE extern
-#define SH_DECLARE
-#include "lib/simplehash.h"
-
-typedef struct OffsetHashEntry
-{
-	Size		offset;
-	char		status;
-}			OffsetHashEntry;
-
-#define SH_PREFIX offsethash
-#define SH_ELEMENT_TYPE OffsetHashEntry
-#define SH_KEY_TYPE Size
-#define SH_SCOPE extern
-#define SH_DECLARE
-#include "lib/simplehash.h"
-
 #endif
--- a/src/hnswbuild.c
+++ b/src/hnswbuild.c
--- a/src/hnswinsert.c
+++ b/src/hnswinsert.c
@@ -5,7 +5,6 @@
 #include "hnsw.h"
 #include "storage/bufmgr.h"
 #include "storage/lmgr.h"
-#include "utils/datum.h"
 #include "utils/memutils.h"

 /*
@@ -93,7 +92,7 @@ HnswFreeOffset(Relation index, Buffer buf, Page page, HnswElement element, Size
 * Add a new page
 */
 static void
-HnswInsertAppendPage(Relation index, Buffer *nbuf, Page *npage, GenericXLogState *state, Page page, bool building)
+HnswInsertAppendPage(Relation index, Buffer *nbuf, Page *npage, GenericXLogState *state, Page page)
 {
 	/* Add a new page */
 	LockRelationForExtension(index, ExclusiveLock);
@@ -101,11 +100,7 @@ HnswInsertAppendPage(Relation index, Buffer *nbuf, Page *npage, GenericXLogState
 	UnlockRelationForExtension(index, ExclusiveLock);

 	/* Init new page */
-	if (building)
-		*npage = BufferGetPage(*nbuf);
-	else
-		*npage = GenericXLogRegisterBuffer(state, *nbuf, GENERIC_XLOG_FULL_IMAGE);
-
+	*npage = GenericXLogRegisterBuffer(state, *nbuf, GENERIC_XLOG_FULL_IMAGE);
 	HnswInitPage(*nbuf, *npage);

 	/* Update previous buffer */
@@ -116,7 +111,7 @@ HnswInsertAppendPage(Relation index, Buffer *nbuf, Page *npage, GenericXLogState
 * Add to element and neighbor pages
 */
 static void
-AddElementOnDisk(Relation index, HnswElement e, int m, BlockNumber insertPage, BlockNumber *updatedInsertPage, bool building)
+WriteNewElementPages(Relation index, HnswElement e, int m, BlockNumber insertPage, BlockNumber *updatedInsertPage)
 {
 	Buffer		buf;
 	Page		page;
@@ -134,10 +129,9 @@ AddElementOnDisk(Relation index, HnswElement e, int m, BlockNumber insertPage, B
 	OffsetNumber freeOffno = InvalidOffsetNumber;
 	OffsetNumber freeNeighborOffno = InvalidOffsetNumber;
 	BlockNumber newInsertPage = InvalidBlockNumber;
-	char	   *base = NULL;

 	/* Calculate sizes */
-	etupSize = HNSW_ELEMENT_TUPLE_SIZE(VARSIZE_ANY(HnswPtrAccess(base, e->value)));
+	etupSize = HNSW_ELEMENT_TUPLE_SIZE(VARSIZE_ANY(DatumGetPointer(e->value)));
 	ntupSize = HNSW_NEIGHBOR_TUPLE_SIZE(e->level, m);
 	combinedSize = etupSize + ntupSize + sizeof(ItemIdData);
 	maxSize = HNSW_MAX_SIZE;
@@ -145,11 +139,11 @@ AddElementOnDisk(Relation index, HnswElement e, int m, BlockNumber insertPage, B

 	/* Prepare element tuple */
 	etup = palloc0(etupSize);
-	HnswSetElementTuple(base, etup, e);
+	HnswSetElementTuple(etup, e);

 	/* Prepare neighbor tuple */
 	ntup = palloc0(ntupSize);
-	HnswSetNeighborTuple(base, ntup, e, m);
+	HnswSetNeighborTuple(ntup, e, m);

 	/* Find a page (or two if needed) to insert the tuples */
 	for (;;)
@@ -157,16 +151,8 @@ AddElementOnDisk(Relation index, HnswElement e, int m, BlockNumber insertPage, B
 		buf = ReadBuffer(index, currentPage);
 		LockBuffer(buf, BUFFER_LOCK_EXCLUSIVE);

-		if (building)
-		{
-			state = NULL;
-			page = BufferGetPage(buf);
-		}
-		else
-		{
-			state = GenericXLogStart(index);
-			page = GenericXLogRegisterBuffer(state, buf, 0);
-		}
+		state = GenericXLogStart(index);
+		page = GenericXLogRegisterBuffer(state, buf, 0);

 		/* Keep track of first page where element at level 0 can fit */
 		if (!BlockNumberIsValid(newInsertPage) && PageGetFreeSpace(page) >= minCombinedSize)
@@ -186,12 +172,7 @@ AddElementOnDisk(Relation index, HnswElement e, int m, BlockNumber insertPage, B
 		if (HnswFreeOffset(index, buf, page, e, ntupSize, &nbuf, &npage, &freeOffno, &freeNeighborOffno, &newInsertPage))
 		{
 			if (nbuf != buf)
-			{
-				if (building)
-					npage = BufferGetPage(nbuf);
-				else
-					npage = GenericXLogRegisterBuffer(state, nbuf, 0);
-			}
+				npage = GenericXLogRegisterBuffer(state, nbuf, 0);

 			break;
 		}
@@ -200,7 +181,7 @@ AddElementOnDisk(Relation index, HnswElement e, int m, BlockNumber insertPage, B
 		/* Skip if both tuples can fit on the same page */
 		if (combinedSize > maxSize && PageGetFreeSpace(page) >= etupSize && !BlockNumberIsValid(HnswPageGetOpaque(page)->nextblkno))
 		{
-			HnswInsertAppendPage(index, &nbuf, &npage, state, page, building);
+			HnswInsertAppendPage(index, &nbuf, &npage, state, page);
 			break;
 		}

@@ -209,8 +190,7 @@ AddElementOnDisk(Relation index, HnswElement e, int m, BlockNumber insertPage, B
 		if (BlockNumberIsValid(currentPage))
 		{
 			/* Move to next page */
-			if (!building)
-				GenericXLogAbort(state);
+			GenericXLogAbort(state);
 			UnlockReleaseBuffer(buf);
 		}
 		else
@@ -218,33 +198,22 @@ AddElementOnDisk(Relation index, HnswElement e, int m, BlockNumber insertPage, B
 			Buffer		newbuf;
 			Page		newpage;

-			HnswInsertAppendPage(index, &newbuf, &newpage, state, page, building);
+			HnswInsertAppendPage(index, &newbuf, &newpage, state, page);

 			/* Commit */
-			if (building)
-				MarkBufferDirty(buf);
-			else
-				GenericXLogFinish(state);
+			GenericXLogFinish(state);

 			/* Unlock previous buffer */
 			UnlockReleaseBuffer(buf);

 			/* Prepare new buffer */
+			state = GenericXLogStart(index);
 			buf = newbuf;
-			if (building)
-			{
-				state = NULL;
-				page = BufferGetPage(buf);
-			}
-			else
-			{
-				state = GenericXLogStart(index);
-				page = GenericXLogRegisterBuffer(state, buf, 0);
-			}
+			page = GenericXLogRegisterBuffer(state, buf, 0);

 			/* Create new page for neighbors if needed */
 			if (PageGetFreeSpace(page) < combinedSize)
-				HnswInsertAppendPage(index, &nbuf, &npage, state, page, building);
+				HnswInsertAppendPage(index, &nbuf, &npage, state, page);
 			else
 			{
 				nbuf = buf;
@@ -298,14 +267,7 @@ AddElementOnDisk(Relation index, HnswElement e, int m, BlockNumber insertPage, B
 	}

 	/* Commit */
-	if (building)
-	{
-		MarkBufferDirty(buf);
-		if (nbuf != buf)
-			MarkBufferDirty(nbuf);
-	}
-	else
-		GenericXLogFinish(state);
+	GenericXLogFinish(state);
 	UnlockReleaseBuffer(buf);
 	if (nbuf != buf)
 		UnlockReleaseBuffer(nbuf);
@@ -339,14 +301,12 @@ ConnectionExists(HnswElement e, HnswNeighborTuple ntup, int startIdx, int lm)
 * Update neighbors
 */
 void
-HnswUpdateNeighborsOnDisk(Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, HnswElement e, int m, bool checkExisting, bool building)
+HnswUpdateNeighborPages(Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, HnswElement e, int m, bool checkExisting)
 {
-	char	   *base = NULL;
-
 	for (int lc = e->level; lc >= 0; lc--)
 	{
 		int			lm = HnswGetLayerM(m, lc);
-		HnswNeighborArray *neighbors = HnswGetNeighbors(base, e, lc);
+		HnswNeighborArray *neighbors = &e->neighbors[lc];

 		for (int i = 0; i < neighbors->length; i++)
 		{
@@ -359,12 +319,11 @@ HnswUpdateNeighborsOnDisk(Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, Hns
 			Size		ntupSize;
 			int			idx = -1;
 			int			startIdx;
-			HnswElement neighborElement = HnswPtrAccess(base, hc->element);
-			OffsetNumber offno = neighborElement->neighborOffno;
+			OffsetNumber offno = hc->element->neighborOffno;

 			/* Get latest neighbors since they may have changed */
 			/* Do not lock yet since selecting neighbors can take time */
-			HnswLoadNeighbors(neighborElement, index, m);
+			HnswLoadNeighbors(hc->element, index, m);

 			/*
 			 * Could improve performance for vacuuming by checking neighbors
@@ -374,25 +333,17 @@ HnswUpdateNeighborsOnDisk(Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, Hns
 			 */

 			/* Select neighbors */
-			HnswUpdateConnection(NULL, e, hc, lm, lc, &idx, index, procinfo, collation);
+			HnswUpdateConnection(e, hc, lm, lc, &idx, index, procinfo, collation);

 			/* New element was not selected as a neighbor */
 			if (idx == -1)
 				continue;

 			/* Register page */
-			buf = ReadBuffer(index, neighborElement->neighborPage);
+			buf = ReadBuffer(index, hc->element->neighborPage);
 			LockBuffer(buf, BUFFER_LOCK_EXCLUSIVE);
-			if (building)
-			{
-				state = NULL;
-				page = BufferGetPage(buf);
-			}
-			else
-			{
-				state = GenericXLogStart(index);
-				page = GenericXLogRegisterBuffer(state, buf, 0);
-			}
+			state = GenericXLogStart(index);
+			page = GenericXLogRegisterBuffer(state, buf, 0);

 			/* Get tuple */
 			itemid = PageGetItemId(page, offno);
@@ -400,7 +351,7 @@ HnswUpdateNeighborsOnDisk(Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, Hns
 			ntupSize = ItemIdGetLength(itemid);

 			/* Calculate index for update */
-			startIdx = (neighborElement->level - lc) * m;
+			startIdx = (hc->element->level - lc) * m;

 			/* Check for existing connection */
 			if (checkExisting && ConnectionExists(e, ntup, startIdx, lm))
@@ -434,12 +385,9 @@ HnswUpdateNeighborsOnDisk(Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, Hns
 					elog(ERROR, "failed to add index item to \"%s\"", RelationGetRelationName(index));

 				/* Commit */
-				if (building)
-					MarkBufferDirty(buf);
-				else
-					GenericXLogFinish(state);
+				GenericXLogFinish(state);
 			}
-			else if (!building)
+			else
 				GenericXLogAbort(state);

 			UnlockReleaseBuffer(buf);
@@ -451,7 +399,7 @@ HnswUpdateNeighborsOnDisk(Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, Hns
 * Add a heap TID to an existing element
 */
 static bool
-AddDuplicateOnDisk(Relation index, HnswElement element, HnswElement dup, bool building)
+HnswAddDuplicate(Relation index, HnswElement element, HnswElement dup)
 {
 	Buffer		buf;
 	Page		page;
@@ -464,16 +412,8 @@ AddDuplicateOnDisk(Relation index, HnswElement element, HnswElement dup, bool bu
 	/* Read page */
 	buf = ReadBuffer(index, dup->blkno);
 	LockBuffer(buf, BUFFER_LOCK_EXCLUSIVE);
-	if (building)
-	{
-		state = NULL;
-		page = BufferGetPage(buf);
-	}
-	else
-	{
-		state = GenericXLogStart(index);
-		page = GenericXLogRegisterBuffer(state, buf, 0);
-	}
+	state = GenericXLogStart(index);
+	page = GenericXLogRegisterBuffer(state, buf, 0);

 	/* Find space */
 	itemid = PageGetItemId(page, dup->offno);
@@ -488,97 +428,82 @@ AddDuplicateOnDisk(Relation index, HnswElement element, HnswElement dup, bool bu
 	/* Either being deleted or we lost our chance to another backend */
 	if (i == 0 || i == HNSW_HEAPTIDS)
 	{
-		if (!building)
-			GenericXLogAbort(state);
+		GenericXLogAbort(state);
 		UnlockReleaseBuffer(buf);
 		return false;
 	}

 	/* Add heap TID */
-	etup->heaptids[i] = element->heaptids[0];
+	etup->heaptids[i] = *((ItemPointer) linitial(element->heaptids));

 	/* Overwrite tuple */
 	if (!PageIndexTupleOverwrite(page, dup->offno, (Item) etup, etupSize))
 		elog(ERROR, "failed to add index item to \"%s\"", RelationGetRelationName(index));

 	/* Commit */
-	if (building)
-		MarkBufferDirty(buf);
-	else
-		GenericXLogFinish(state);
+	GenericXLogFinish(state);
 	UnlockReleaseBuffer(buf);

 	return true;
 }

 /*
- * Find duplicate element
- */
-static bool
-FindDuplicateOnDisk(Relation index, HnswElement element, bool building)
-{
-	char	   *base = NULL;
-	HnswNeighborArray *neighbors = HnswGetNeighbors(base, element, 0);
-	Datum		value = HnswGetValue(base, element);
-
-	for (int i = 0; i < neighbors->length; i++)
-	{
-		HnswCandidate *neighbor = &neighbors->items[i];
-		HnswElement neighborElement = HnswPtrAccess(base, neighbor->element);
-		Datum		neighborValue = HnswGetValue(base, neighborElement);
-
-		/* Exit early since ordered by distance */
-		if (!datumIsEqual(value, neighborValue, false, -1))
-			return false;
-
-		if (AddDuplicateOnDisk(index, element, neighborElement, building))
-			return true;
-	}
-
-	return false;
-}
-
-/*
- * Update graph on disk
+ * Write changes to disk
 */
 static void
-UpdateGraphOnDisk(Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, HnswElement element, int m, int efConstruction, HnswElement entryPoint, bool building)
+WriteElement(Relation index, FmgrInfo *procinfo, Oid collation, HnswElement element, int m, int efConstruction, HnswElement dup, HnswElement entryPoint)
 {
 	BlockNumber newInsertPage = InvalidBlockNumber;

-	/* Look for duplicate */
-	if (FindDuplicateOnDisk(index, element, building))
-		return;
+	/* Try to add to existing page */
+	if (dup != NULL)
+	{
+		if (HnswAddDuplicate(index, element, dup))
+			return;
+	}

-	/* Add element */
-	AddElementOnDisk(index, element, m, GetInsertPage(index), &newInsertPage, building);
+	/* Write element and neighbor tuples */
+	WriteNewElementPages(index, element, m, GetInsertPage(index), &newInsertPage);

 	/* Update insert page if needed */
 	if (BlockNumberIsValid(newInsertPage))
-		HnswUpdateMetaPage(index, 0, NULL, newInsertPage, MAIN_FORKNUM, building);
+		HnswUpdateMetaPage(index, 0, NULL, newInsertPage, MAIN_FORKNUM);

 	/* Update neighbors */
-	HnswUpdateNeighborsOnDisk(index, procinfo, collation, element, m, false, building);
+	HnswUpdateNeighborPages(index, procinfo, collation, element, m, false);

-	/* Update entry point if needed */
+	/* Update metapage if needed */
 	if (entryPoint == NULL || element->level > entryPoint->level)
-		HnswUpdateMetaPage(index, HNSW_UPDATE_ENTRY_GREATER, element, InvalidBlockNumber, MAIN_FORKNUM, building);
+		HnswUpdateMetaPage(index, HNSW_UPDATE_ENTRY_GREATER, element, InvalidBlockNumber, MAIN_FORKNUM);
 }

 /*
 * Insert a tuple into the index
 */
 bool
-HnswInsertTupleOnDisk(Relation index, Datum value, Datum *values, bool *isnull, ItemPointer heap_tid, Relation heapRel, bool building)
+HnswInsertTuple(Relation index, Datum *values, bool *isnull, ItemPointer heap_tid, Relation heapRel)
 {
+	Datum		value;
+	FmgrInfo   *normprocinfo;
 	HnswElement entryPoint;
 	HnswElement element;
 	int			m;
 	int			efConstruction = HnswGetEfConstruction(index);
 	FmgrInfo   *procinfo = index_getprocinfo(index, 1, HNSW_DISTANCE_PROC);
 	Oid			collation = index->rd_indcollation[0];
+	HnswElement dup;
 	LOCKMODE	lockmode = ShareLock;
-	char	   *base = NULL;
+
+	/* Detoast once for all calls */
+	value = PointerGetDatum(PG_DETOAST_DATUM(values[0]));
+
+	/* Normalize if needed */
+	normprocinfo = HnswOptionalProcInfo(index, HNSW_NORM_PROC);
+	if (normprocinfo != NULL)
+	{
+		if (!HnswNormValue(normprocinfo, collation, &value, NULL))
+			return false;
+	}

 	/*
 	 * Get a shared lock. This allows vacuum to ensure no in-flight inserts
@@ -591,8 +516,8 @@ HnswInsertTupleOnDisk(Relation index, Datum value, Datum *values, bool *isnull,
 	HnswGetMetaPageInfo(index, &m, &entryPoint);

 	/* Create an element */
-	element = HnswInitElement(base, heap_tid, m, HnswGetMl(m), HnswGetMaxLevel(m), NULL);
-	HnswPtrStore(base, element->value, DatumGetPointer(value));
+	element = HnswInitElement(heap_tid, m, HnswGetMl(m), HnswGetMaxLevel(m));
+	element->value = value;

 	/* Prevent concurrent inserts when likely updating entry point */
 	if (entryPoint == NULL || element->level > entryPoint->level)
@@ -608,11 +533,14 @@ HnswInsertTupleOnDisk(Relation index, Datum value, Datum *values, bool *isnull,
 		entryPoint = HnswGetEntryPoint(index);
 	}

-	/* Find neighbors for element */
-	HnswFindElementNeighbors(base, element, entryPoint, index, procinfo, collation, m, efConstruction, false);
+	/* Insert element in graph */
+	HnswInsertElement(element, entryPoint, index, procinfo, collation, m, efConstruction, false);

-	/* Update graph on disk */
-	UpdateGraphOnDisk(index, procinfo, collation, element, m, efConstruction, entryPoint, building);
+	/* Look for duplicate */
+	dup = HnswFindDuplicate(element);
+
+	/* Write to disk */
+	WriteElement(index, procinfo, collation, element, m, efConstruction, dup, entryPoint);

 	/* Release lock */
 	UnlockPage(index, HNSW_UPDATE_LOCK, lockmode);
@@ -620,30 +548,6 @@ HnswInsertTupleOnDisk(Relation index, Datum value, Datum *values, bool *isnull,
 	return true;
 }

-/*
- * Insert a tuple into the index
- */
-static void
-HnswInsertTuple(Relation index, Datum *values, bool *isnull, ItemPointer heap_tid, Relation heapRel)
-{
-	Datum		value;
-	FmgrInfo   *normprocinfo;
-	Oid			collation = index->rd_indcollation[0];
-
-	/* Detoast once for all calls */
-	value = PointerGetDatum(PG_DETOAST_DATUM(values[0]));
-
-	/* Normalize if needed */
-	normprocinfo = HnswOptionalProcInfo(index, HNSW_NORM_PROC);
-	if (normprocinfo != NULL)
-	{
-		if (!HnswNormValue(normprocinfo, collation, &value, NULL))
-			return;
-	}
-
-	HnswInsertTupleOnDisk(index, value, values, isnull, heap_tid, heapRel, false);
-}
-
 /*
 * Insert a tuple into the index
 */
--- a/src/hnswscan.c
+++ b/src/hnswscan.c
@@ -21,7 +21,6 @@ GetScanItems(IndexScanDesc scan, Datum q)
 	List	   *w;
 	int			m;
 	HnswElement entryPoint;
-	char	   *base = NULL;

 	/* Get m and entry point */
 	HnswGetMetaPageInfo(index, &m, &entryPoint);
@@ -29,15 +28,15 @@ GetScanItems(IndexScanDesc scan, Datum q)
 	if (entryPoint == NULL)
 		return NIL;

-	ep = list_make1(HnswEntryCandidate(base, entryPoint, q, index, procinfo, collation, false));
+	ep = list_make1(HnswEntryCandidate(entryPoint, q, index, procinfo, collation, false));

 	for (int lc = entryPoint->level; lc >= 1; lc--)
 	{
-		w = HnswSearchLayer(base, q, ep, 1, lc, index, procinfo, collation, m, false, NULL);
+		w = HnswSearchLayer(q, ep, 1, lc, index, procinfo, collation, m, false, NULL);
 		ep = w;
 	}

-	return HnswSearchLayer(base, q, ep, hnsw_ef_search, 0, index, procinfo, collation, m, false, NULL);
+	return HnswSearchLayer(q, ep, hnsw_ef_search, 0, index, procinfo, collation, m, false, NULL);
 }

 /*
@@ -185,19 +184,19 @@ hnswgettuple(IndexScanDesc scan, ScanDirection dir)

 	while (list_length(so->w) > 0)
 	{
-		char	   *base = NULL;
 		HnswCandidate *hc = llast(so->w);
-		HnswElement element = HnswPtrAccess(base, hc->element);
 		ItemPointer heaptid;

 		/* Move to next element if no valid heap TIDs */
-		if (element->heaptidsLength == 0)
+		if (list_length(hc->element->heaptids) == 0)
 		{
 			so->w = list_delete_last(so->w);
 			continue;
 		}

-		heaptid = &element->heaptids[--element->heaptidsLength];
+		heaptid = llast(hc->element->heaptids);
+
+		hc->element->heaptids = list_delete_last(hc->element->heaptids);

 		MemoryContextSwitchTo(oldCtx);

--- a/src/hnswutils.c
+++ b/src/hnswutils.c
--- a/src/hnswvacuum.c
+++ b/src/hnswvacuum.c
@@ -12,9 +12,12 @@
 * Check if deleted list contains an index TID
 */
 static bool
-DeletedContains(tidhash_hash * deleted, ItemPointer indextid)
+DeletedContains(HTAB *deleted, ItemPointer indextid)
 {
-	return tidhash_lookup(deleted, *indextid) != NULL;
+	bool		found;
+
+	hash_search(deleted, indextid, HASH_FIND, &found);
+	return found;
 }

 /*
@@ -107,13 +110,11 @@ RemoveHeapTids(HnswVacuumState * vacuumstate)
 			if (!ItemPointerIsValid(&etup->heaptids[0]))
 			{
 				ItemPointerData ip;
-				bool		found;

 				/* Add to deleted list */
 				ItemPointerSet(&ip, blkno, offno);

-				tidhash_insert(vacuumstate->deleted, ip, &found);
-				Assert(!found);
+				(void) hash_search(vacuumstate->deleted, &ip, HASH_ENTER, NULL);
 			}
 			else if (etup->level > highestLevel && !(entryPoint != NULL && blkno == entryPoint->blkno && offno == entryPoint->offno))
 			{
@@ -199,22 +200,21 @@ RepairGraphElement(HnswVacuumState * vacuumstate, HnswElement element, HnswEleme
 	BufferAccessStrategy bas = vacuumstate->bas;
 	HnswNeighborTuple ntup = vacuumstate->ntup;
 	Size		ntupSize = HNSW_NEIGHBOR_TUPLE_SIZE(element->level, m);
-	char	   *base = NULL;

 	/* Skip if element is entry point */
 	if (entryPoint != NULL && element->blkno == entryPoint->blkno && element->offno == entryPoint->offno)
 		return;

 	/* Init fields */
-	HnswInitNeighbors(base, element, m, NULL);
-	element->heaptidsLength = 0;
+	HnswInitNeighbors(element, m);
+	element->heaptids = NIL;

-	/* Find neighbors for element, skipping itself */
-	HnswFindElementNeighbors(base, element, entryPoint, index, procinfo, collation, m, efConstruction, true);
+	/* Add element to graph, skipping itself */
+	HnswInsertElement(element, entryPoint, index, procinfo, collation, m, efConstruction, true);

 	/* Update neighbor tuple */
 	/* Do this before getting page to minimize locking */
-	HnswSetNeighborTuple(base, ntup, element, m);
+	HnswSetNeighborTuple(ntup, element, m);

 	/* Get neighbor page */
 	buf = ReadBufferExtended(index, MAIN_FORKNUM, element->neighborPage, RBM_NORMAL, bas);
@@ -231,7 +231,7 @@ RepairGraphElement(HnswVacuumState * vacuumstate, HnswElement element, HnswEleme
 	UnlockReleaseBuffer(buf);

 	/* Update neighbors */
-	HnswUpdateNeighborsOnDisk(index, procinfo, collation, element, m, true, false);
+	HnswUpdateNeighborPages(index, procinfo, collation, element, m, true);
 }

 /*
@@ -287,7 +287,7 @@ RepairGraphEntryPoint(HnswVacuumState * vacuumstate)
 			 * point is outdated and empty, the entry point will be empty
 			 * until an element is repaired.
 			 */
-			HnswUpdateMetaPage(index, HNSW_UPDATE_ENTRY_ALWAYS, highestPoint, InvalidBlockNumber, MAIN_FORKNUM, false);
+			HnswUpdateMetaPage(index, HNSW_UPDATE_ENTRY_ALWAYS, highestPoint, InvalidBlockNumber, MAIN_FORKNUM);
 		}
 		else
 		{
@@ -302,7 +302,7 @@ RepairGraphEntryPoint(HnswVacuumState * vacuumstate)
 			{
 				/* Reset neighbors from previous update */
 				if (highestPoint != NULL)
-					HnswPtrStore((char *) NULL, highestPoint->neighbors, (HnswNeighborArrayPtr *) NULL);
+					highestPoint->neighbors = NULL;

 				RepairGraphElement(vacuumstate, entryPoint, highestPoint);
 			}
@@ -420,7 +420,7 @@ RepairGraph(HnswVacuumState * vacuumstate)
 			 * was replaced and highest point was outdated.
 			 */
 			if (entryPoint == NULL || element->level > entryPoint->level)
-				HnswUpdateMetaPage(index, HNSW_UPDATE_ENTRY_GREATER, element, InvalidBlockNumber, MAIN_FORKNUM, false);
+				HnswUpdateMetaPage(index, HNSW_UPDATE_ENTRY_GREATER, element, InvalidBlockNumber, MAIN_FORKNUM);

 			/* Release lock */
 			UnlockPage(index, HNSW_UPDATE_LOCK, lockmode);
@@ -565,7 +565,7 @@ MarkDeleted(HnswVacuumState * vacuumstate)
 	}

 	/* Update insert page last, after everything has been marked as deleted */
-	HnswUpdateMetaPage(index, 0, NULL, insertPage, MAIN_FORKNUM, false);
+	HnswUpdateMetaPage(index, 0, NULL, insertPage, MAIN_FORKNUM);
 }

 /*
@@ -575,6 +575,7 @@ static void
 InitVacuumState(HnswVacuumState * vacuumstate, IndexVacuumInfo *info, IndexBulkDeleteResult *stats, IndexBulkDeleteCallback callback, void *callback_state)
 {
 	Relation	index = info->index;
+	HASHCTL		hash_ctl;

 	if (stats == NULL)
 		stats = (IndexBulkDeleteResult *) palloc0(sizeof(IndexBulkDeleteResult));
@@ -596,7 +597,10 @@ InitVacuumState(HnswVacuumState * vacuumstate, IndexVacuumInfo *info, IndexBulkD
 	HnswGetMetaPageInfo(index, &vacuumstate->m, NULL);

 	/* Create hash table */
-	vacuumstate->deleted = tidhash_create(CurrentMemoryContext, 256, NULL);
+	hash_ctl.keysize = sizeof(ItemPointerData);
+	hash_ctl.entrysize = sizeof(ItemPointerData);
+	hash_ctl.hcxt = CurrentMemoryContext;
+	vacuumstate->deleted = hash_create("hnswbulkdelete indextids", 256, &hash_ctl, HASH_ELEM | HASH_BLOBS | HASH_CONTEXT);
 }

 /*
@@ -605,7 +609,7 @@ InitVacuumState(HnswVacuumState * vacuumstate, IndexVacuumInfo *info, IndexBulkD
 static void
 FreeVacuumState(HnswVacuumState * vacuumstate)
 {
-	tidhash_destroy(vacuumstate->deleted);
+	hash_destroy(vacuumstate->deleted);
 	FreeAccessStrategy(vacuumstate->bas);
 	pfree(vacuumstate->ntup);
 	MemoryContextDelete(vacuumstate->tmpCtx);
--- a/src/ivfbuild.c
+++ b/src/ivfbuild.c
@@ -543,10 +543,10 @@ CreateListPages(Relation index, VectorArray centers, int dimensions,
 	pfree(list);
 }

-#ifdef IVFFLAT_KMEANS_DEBUG
 /*
 * Print k-means metrics
 */
+#ifdef IVFFLAT_KMEANS_DEBUG
 static void
 PrintKmeansMetrics(IvfflatBuildState * buildstate)
 {
--- a/src/ivfkmeans.c
+++ b/src/ivfkmeans.c
@@ -6,10 +6,6 @@
 #include "ivfflat.h"
 #include "miscadmin.h"

-#ifdef IVFFLAT_MEMORY
-#include "utils/memutils.h"
-#endif
-
 /*
 * Initialize with kmeans++
 *
@@ -155,23 +151,6 @@ QuickCenters(Relation index, VectorArray samples, VectorArray centers)
 	}
 }

-#ifdef IVFFLAT_MEMORY
-/*
- * Show memory usage
- */
-static void
-ShowMemoryUsage(Size estimatedSize)
-{
-#if PG_VERSION_NUM >= 130000
-	elog(INFO, "total memory: %zu MB",
-		 MemoryContextMemAllocated(CurrentMemoryContext, true) / (1024 * 1024));
-#else
-	MemoryContextStats(CurrentMemoryContext);
-#endif
-	elog(INFO, "estimated memory: %zu MB", estimatedSize / (1024 * 1024));
-}
-#endif
-
 /*
 * Use Elkan for performance. This requires distance function to satisfy triangle inequality.
 *
@@ -252,10 +231,6 @@ ElkanKmeans(Relation index, VectorArray samples, VectorArray centers)
 		vec->dim = dimensions;
 	}

-#ifdef IVFFLAT_MEMORY
-	ShowMemoryUsage(totalSize);
-#endif
-
 	/* Pick initial centers */
 	InitCenters(index, samples, centers, lowerBound);

--- a/src/vector.c
+++ b/src/vector.c
@@ -724,7 +724,7 @@ vector_spherical_distance(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
 }

 /*
- * Get the L1 distance between two vectors
+ * Get the L1 distance between vectors
 */
 PGDLLEXPORT PG_FUNCTION_INFO_V1(l1_distance);
 Datum
@@ -903,8 +903,8 @@ PGDLLEXPORT PG_FUNCTION_INFO_V1(vector_lt);
 Datum
 vector_lt(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
 {
-	Vector	   *a = PG_GETARG_VECTOR_P(0);
-	Vector	   *b = PG_GETARG_VECTOR_P(1);
+	Vector	   *a = (Vector *) PG_GETARG_VECTOR_P(0);
+	Vector	   *b = (Vector *) PG_GETARG_VECTOR_P(1);

 	PG_RETURN_BOOL(vector_cmp_internal(a, b) < 0);
 }
@@ -916,8 +916,8 @@ PGDLLEXPORT PG_FUNCTION_INFO_V1(vector_le);
 Datum
 vector_le(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
 {
-	Vector	   *a = PG_GETARG_VECTOR_P(0);
-	Vector	   *b = PG_GETARG_VECTOR_P(1);
+	Vector	   *a = (Vector *) PG_GETARG_VECTOR_P(0);
+	Vector	   *b = (Vector *) PG_GETARG_VECTOR_P(1);

 	PG_RETURN_BOOL(vector_cmp_internal(a, b) <= 0);
 }
@@ -929,8 +929,8 @@ PGDLLEXPORT PG_FUNCTION_INFO_V1(vector_eq);
 Datum
 vector_eq(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
 {
-	Vector	   *a = PG_GETARG_VECTOR_P(0);
-	Vector	   *b = PG_GETARG_VECTOR_P(1);
+	Vector	   *a = (Vector *) PG_GETARG_VECTOR_P(0);
+	Vector	   *b = (Vector *) PG_GETARG_VECTOR_P(1);

 	PG_RETURN_BOOL(vector_cmp_internal(a, b) == 0);
 }
@@ -942,8 +942,8 @@ PGDLLEXPORT PG_FUNCTION_INFO_V1(vector_ne);
 Datum
 vector_ne(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
 {
-	Vector	   *a = PG_GETARG_VECTOR_P(0);
-	Vector	   *b = PG_GETARG_VECTOR_P(1);
+	Vector	   *a = (Vector *) PG_GETARG_VECTOR_P(0);
+	Vector	   *b = (Vector *) PG_GETARG_VECTOR_P(1);

 	PG_RETURN_BOOL(vector_cmp_internal(a, b) != 0);
 }
@@ -955,8 +955,8 @@ PGDLLEXPORT PG_FUNCTION_INFO_V1(vector_ge);
 Datum
 vector_ge(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
 {
-	Vector	   *a = PG_GETARG_VECTOR_P(0);
-	Vector	   *b = PG_GETARG_VECTOR_P(1);
+	Vector	   *a = (Vector *) PG_GETARG_VECTOR_P(0);
+	Vector	   *b = (Vector *) PG_GETARG_VECTOR_P(1);

 	PG_RETURN_BOOL(vector_cmp_internal(a, b) >= 0);
 }
@@ -968,8 +968,8 @@ PGDLLEXPORT PG_FUNCTION_INFO_V1(vector_gt);
 Datum
 vector_gt(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
 {
-	Vector	   *a = PG_GETARG_VECTOR_P(0);
-	Vector	   *b = PG_GETARG_VECTOR_P(1);
+	Vector	   *a = (Vector *) PG_GETARG_VECTOR_P(0);
+	Vector	   *b = (Vector *) PG_GETARG_VECTOR_P(1);

 	PG_RETURN_BOOL(vector_cmp_internal(a, b) > 0);
 }
@@ -981,8 +981,8 @@ PGDLLEXPORT PG_FUNCTION_INFO_V1(vector_cmp);
 Datum
 vector_cmp(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
 {
-	Vector	   *a = PG_GETARG_VECTOR_P(0);
-	Vector	   *b = PG_GETARG_VECTOR_P(1);
+	Vector	   *a = (Vector *) PG_GETARG_VECTOR_P(0);
+	Vector	   *b = (Vector *) PG_GETARG_VECTOR_P(1);

 	PG_RETURN_INT32(vector_cmp_internal(a, b));
 }
--- a/test/expected/copy.out
+++ b/test/expected/copy.out
@@ -1,15 +1,15 @@
-CREATE TABLE t (val vector(3));
-INSERT INTO t (val) VALUES ('[0,0,0]'), ('[1,2,3]'), ('[1,1,1]'), (NULL);
-CREATE TABLE t2 (val vector(3));
+CREATE TABLE t (val vector(3), val2 half[]);
+INSERT INTO t (val, val2) VALUES ('[0,0,0]', '{0,0,0}'), ('[1,2,3]', '{1,2,3}'), ('[1,1,1]', '{1,1,1}'), (NULL, NULL);
+CREATE TABLE t2 (val vector(3), val2 half[]);
 \copy t TO 'results/data.bin' WITH (FORMAT binary)
 \copy t2 FROM 'results/data.bin' WITH (FORMAT binary)
 SELECT * FROM t2 ORDER BY val;
-   val   
---------
- [0,0,0]
- [1,1,1]
- [1,2,3]
- 
+   val   |  val2   
+---------+---------
+ [0,0,0] | {0,0,0}
+ [1,1,1] | {1,1,1}
+ [1,2,3] | {1,2,3}
+         | 
 (4 rows)

 DROP TABLE t;
--- a/test/expected/functions.out
+++ b/test/expected/functions.out
@@ -54,105 +54,105 @@ SELECT vector_norm('[3e37,4e37]')::real;
       5e+37
 (1 row)

-SELECT l2_distance('[0,0]', '[3,4]');
+SELECT l2_distance('[0,0]'::vector, '[3,4]');
 l2_distance 
 -------------
           5
 (1 row)

-SELECT l2_distance('[0,0]', '[0,1]');
+SELECT l2_distance('[0,0]'::vector, '[0,1]');
 l2_distance 
 -------------
           1
 (1 row)

-SELECT l2_distance('[1,2]', '[3]');
+SELECT l2_distance('[1,2]'::vector, '[3]');
 ERROR:  different vector dimensions 2 and 1
-SELECT l2_distance('[3e38]', '[-3e38]');
+SELECT l2_distance('[3e38]'::vector, '[-3e38]');
 l2_distance 
 -------------
    Infinity
 (1 row)

-SELECT inner_product('[1,2]', '[3,4]');
+SELECT inner_product('[1,2]'::vector, '[3,4]');
 inner_product 
 ---------------
            11
 (1 row)

-SELECT inner_product('[1,2]', '[3]');
+SELECT inner_product('[1,2]'::vector, '[3]');
 ERROR:  different vector dimensions 2 and 1
-SELECT inner_product('[3e38]', '[3e38]');
+SELECT inner_product('[3e38]'::vector, '[3e38]');
 inner_product 
 ---------------
      Infinity
 (1 row)

-SELECT cosine_distance('[1,2]', '[2,4]');
+SELECT cosine_distance('[1,2]'::vector, '[2,4]');
 cosine_distance 
 -----------------
               0
 (1 row)

-SELECT cosine_distance('[1,2]', '[0,0]');
+SELECT cosine_distance('[1,2]'::vector, '[0,0]');
 cosine_distance 
 -----------------
             NaN
 (1 row)

-SELECT cosine_distance('[1,1]', '[1,1]');
+SELECT cosine_distance('[1,1]'::vector, '[1,1]');
 cosine_distance 
 -----------------
               0
 (1 row)

-SELECT cosine_distance('[1,0]', '[0,2]');
+SELECT cosine_distance('[1,0]'::vector, '[0,2]');
 cosine_distance 
 -----------------
               1
 (1 row)

-SELECT cosine_distance('[1,1]', '[-1,-1]');
+SELECT cosine_distance('[1,1]'::vector, '[-1,-1]');
 cosine_distance 
 -----------------
               2
 (1 row)

-SELECT cosine_distance('[1,2]', '[3]');
+SELECT cosine_distance('[1,2]'::vector, '[3]');
 ERROR:  different vector dimensions 2 and 1
-SELECT cosine_distance('[1,1]', '[1.1,1.1]');
+SELECT cosine_distance('[1,1]'::vector, '[1.1,1.1]');
 cosine_distance 
 -----------------
               0
 (1 row)

-SELECT cosine_distance('[1,1]', '[-1.1,-1.1]');
+SELECT cosine_distance('[1,1]'::vector, '[-1.1,-1.1]');
 cosine_distance 
 -----------------
               2
 (1 row)

-SELECT cosine_distance('[3e38]', '[3e38]');
+SELECT cosine_distance('[3e38]'::vector, '[3e38]');
 cosine_distance 
 -----------------
             NaN
 (1 row)

-SELECT l1_distance('[0,0]', '[3,4]');
+SELECT l1_distance('[0,0]'::vector, '[3,4]');
 l1_distance 
 -------------
           7
 (1 row)

-SELECT l1_distance('[0,0]', '[0,1]');
+SELECT l1_distance('[0,0]'::vector, '[0,1]');
 l1_distance 
 -------------
           1
 (1 row)

-SELECT l1_distance('[1,2]', '[3]');
+SELECT l1_distance('[1,2]'::vector, '[3]');
 ERROR:  different vector dimensions 2 and 1
-SELECT l1_distance('[3e38]', '[-3e38]');
+SELECT l1_distance('[3e38]'::vector, '[-3e38]');
 l1_distance 
 -------------
    Infinity
--- a/test/expected/half.out
+++ b/test/expected/half.out
@@ -0,0 +1,182 @@
+SELECT '1.5'::half;
+ half 
+------
+ 1.5
+(1 row)
+
+SELECT '65504'::half;
+ half  
+-------
+ 65504
+(1 row)
+
+SELECT '65505'::half;
+ERROR:  "65505" is out of range for type half
+LINE 1: SELECT '65505'::half;
+               ^
+SELECT '-65504'::half;
+  half  
+--------
+ -65504
+(1 row)
+
+SELECT '-65505'::half;
+ERROR:  "-65505" is out of range for type half
+LINE 1: SELECT '-65505'::half;
+               ^
+SELECT ''::half;
+ERROR:  invalid input syntax for type half: ""
+LINE 1: SELECT ''::half;
+               ^
+SELECT ' '::half;
+ERROR:  invalid input syntax for type half: " "
+LINE 1: SELECT ' '::half;
+               ^
+SELECT '-'::half;
+ERROR:  invalid input syntax for type half: "-"
+LINE 1: SELECT '-'::half;
+               ^
+SELECT ' 1.5'::half;
+ half 
+------
+ 1.5
+(1 row)
+
+SELECT '1.5 '::half;
+ half 
+------
+ 1.5
+(1 row)
+
+SELECT '1.5a'::half;
+ERROR:  invalid input syntax for type half: "1.5a"
+LINE 1: SELECT '1.5a'::half;
+               ^
+SELECT '{1,2,3}'::half[];
+  half   
+---------
+ {1,2,3}
+(1 row)
+
+SELECT '65505'::integer::half;
+ half  
+-------
+ 65504
+(1 row)
+
+SELECT 'NaN'::real::half;
+ half 
+------
+ NaN
+(1 row)
+
+SELECT 'Infinity'::real::half;
+   half   
+----------
+ Infinity
+(1 row)
+
+SELECT l2_distance('{0,0}'::half[], '{3,4}'::half[]);
+ l2_distance 
+-------------
+           5
+(1 row)
+
+SELECT l2_distance('{0,0}'::half[], '{0,1}'::half[]);
+ l2_distance 
+-------------
+           1
+(1 row)
+
+SELECT l2_distance('{1,2}'::half[], '{3}'::half[]);
+ERROR:  different dimensions 2 and 1
+SELECT '{0,0}'::half[] <-> '{3,4}'::half[];
+ ?column? 
+----------
+        5
+(1 row)
+
+SELECT inner_product('{1,2}'::half[], '{3,4}'::half[]);
+ inner_product 
+---------------
+            11
+(1 row)
+
+SELECT inner_product('{1,2}'::half[], '{3}'::half[]);
+ERROR:  different dimensions 2 and 1
+SELECT inner_product('{65504}'::half[], '{65504}'::half[]);
+ inner_product 
+---------------
+    4290774016
+(1 row)
+
+SELECT '{1,2}'::half[] <#> '{3,4}'::half[];
+ ?column? 
+----------
+      -11
+(1 row)
+
+SELECT cosine_distance('{1,2}'::half[], '{2,4}'::half[]);
+ cosine_distance 
+-----------------
+               0
+(1 row)
+
+SELECT cosine_distance('{1,2}'::half[], '{0,0}'::half[]);
+ cosine_distance 
+-----------------
+             NaN
+(1 row)
+
+SELECT cosine_distance('{1,1}'::half[], '{1,1}'::half[]);
+ cosine_distance 
+-----------------
+               0
+(1 row)
+
+SELECT cosine_distance('{1,0}'::half[], '{0,2}'::half[]);
+ cosine_distance 
+-----------------
+               1
+(1 row)
+
+SELECT cosine_distance('{1,1}'::half[], '{-1,-1}'::half[]);
+ cosine_distance 
+-----------------
+               2
+(1 row)
+
+SELECT cosine_distance('{1,2}'::half[], '{3}'::half[]);
+ERROR:  different dimensions 2 and 1
+SELECT cosine_distance('{1,1}'::half[], '{1.1,1.1}'::half[]);
+ cosine_distance 
+-----------------
+               0
+(1 row)
+
+SELECT cosine_distance('{1,1}'::half[], '{-1.1,-1.1}'::half[]);
+ cosine_distance 
+-----------------
+               2
+(1 row)
+
+SELECT '{1,2}'::half[] <=> '{2,4}'::half[];
+ ?column? 
+----------
+        0
+(1 row)
+
+SELECT l1_distance('{0,0}'::half[], '{3,4}');
+ l1_distance 
+-------------
+           7
+(1 row)
+
+SELECT l1_distance('{0,0}'::half[], '{0,1}');
+ l1_distance 
+-------------
+           1
+(1 row)
+
+SELECT l1_distance('{1,2}'::half[], '{3}');
+ERROR:  different dimensions 2 and 1
--- a/test/sql/copy.sql
+++ b/test/sql/copy.sql
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
-CREATE TABLE t (val vector(3));
-INSERT INTO t (val) VALUES ('[0,0,0]'), ('[1,2,3]'), ('[1,1,1]'), (NULL);
+CREATE TABLE t (val vector(3), val2 half[]);
+INSERT INTO t (val, val2) VALUES ('[0,0,0]', '{0,0,0}'), ('[1,2,3]', '{1,2,3}'), ('[1,1,1]', '{1,1,1}'), (NULL, NULL);

-CREATE TABLE t2 (val vector(3));
+CREATE TABLE t2 (val vector(3), val2 half[]);

 \copy t TO 'results/data.bin' WITH (FORMAT binary)
 \copy t2 FROM 'results/data.bin' WITH (FORMAT binary)
--- a/test/sql/functions.sql
+++ b/test/sql/functions.sql
@@ -13,29 +13,29 @@ SELECT vector_norm('[3,4]');
 SELECT vector_norm('[0,1]');
 SELECT vector_norm('[3e37,4e37]')::real;

-SELECT l2_distance('[0,0]', '[3,4]');
-SELECT l2_distance('[0,0]', '[0,1]');
-SELECT l2_distance('[1,2]', '[3]');
-SELECT l2_distance('[3e38]', '[-3e38]');
+SELECT l2_distance('[0,0]'::vector, '[3,4]');
+SELECT l2_distance('[0,0]'::vector, '[0,1]');
+SELECT l2_distance('[1,2]'::vector, '[3]');
+SELECT l2_distance('[3e38]'::vector, '[-3e38]');

-SELECT inner_product('[1,2]', '[3,4]');
-SELECT inner_product('[1,2]', '[3]');
-SELECT inner_product('[3e38]', '[3e38]');
+SELECT inner_product('[1,2]'::vector, '[3,4]');
+SELECT inner_product('[1,2]'::vector, '[3]');
+SELECT inner_product('[3e38]'::vector, '[3e38]');

-SELECT cosine_distance('[1,2]', '[2,4]');
-SELECT cosine_distance('[1,2]', '[0,0]');
-SELECT cosine_distance('[1,1]', '[1,1]');
-SELECT cosine_distance('[1,0]', '[0,2]');
-SELECT cosine_distance('[1,1]', '[-1,-1]');
-SELECT cosine_distance('[1,2]', '[3]');
-SELECT cosine_distance('[1,1]', '[1.1,1.1]');
-SELECT cosine_distance('[1,1]', '[-1.1,-1.1]');
-SELECT cosine_distance('[3e38]', '[3e38]');
+SELECT cosine_distance('[1,2]'::vector, '[2,4]');
+SELECT cosine_distance('[1,2]'::vector, '[0,0]');
+SELECT cosine_distance('[1,1]'::vector, '[1,1]');
+SELECT cosine_distance('[1,0]'::vector, '[0,2]');
+SELECT cosine_distance('[1,1]'::vector, '[-1,-1]');
+SELECT cosine_distance('[1,2]'::vector, '[3]');
+SELECT cosine_distance('[1,1]'::vector, '[1.1,1.1]');
+SELECT cosine_distance('[1,1]'::vector, '[-1.1,-1.1]');
+SELECT cosine_distance('[3e38]'::vector, '[3e38]');

-SELECT l1_distance('[0,0]', '[3,4]');
-SELECT l1_distance('[0,0]', '[0,1]');
-SELECT l1_distance('[1,2]', '[3]');
-SELECT l1_distance('[3e38]', '[-3e38]');
+SELECT l1_distance('[0,0]'::vector, '[3,4]');
+SELECT l1_distance('[0,0]'::vector, '[0,1]');
+SELECT l1_distance('[1,2]'::vector, '[3]');
+SELECT l1_distance('[3e38]'::vector, '[-3e38]');

 SELECT avg(v) FROM unnest(ARRAY['[1,2,3]'::vector, '[3,5,7]']) v;
 SELECT avg(v) FROM unnest(ARRAY['[1,2,3]'::vector, '[3,5,7]', NULL]) v;
--- a/test/sql/half.sql
+++ b/test/sql/half.sql
@@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
+SELECT '1.5'::half;
+SELECT '65504'::half;
+SELECT '65505'::half;
+SELECT '-65504'::half;
+SELECT '-65505'::half;
+
+SELECT ''::half;
+SELECT ' '::half;
+SELECT '-'::half;
+SELECT ' 1.5'::half;
+SELECT '1.5 '::half;
+SELECT '1.5a'::half;
+
+SELECT '{1,2,3}'::half[];
+
+SELECT '65505'::integer::half;
+SELECT 'NaN'::real::half;
+SELECT 'Infinity'::real::half;
+
+SELECT l2_distance('{0,0}'::half[], '{3,4}'::half[]);
+SELECT l2_distance('{0,0}'::half[], '{0,1}'::half[]);
+SELECT l2_distance('{1,2}'::half[], '{3}'::half[]);
+SELECT '{0,0}'::half[] <-> '{3,4}'::half[];
+
+SELECT inner_product('{1,2}'::half[], '{3,4}'::half[]);
+SELECT inner_product('{1,2}'::half[], '{3}'::half[]);
+SELECT inner_product('{65504}'::half[], '{65504}'::half[]);
+SELECT '{1,2}'::half[] <#> '{3,4}'::half[];
+
+SELECT cosine_distance('{1,2}'::half[], '{2,4}'::half[]);
+SELECT cosine_distance('{1,2}'::half[], '{0,0}'::half[]);
+SELECT cosine_distance('{1,1}'::half[], '{1,1}'::half[]);
+SELECT cosine_distance('{1,0}'::half[], '{0,2}'::half[]);
+SELECT cosine_distance('{1,1}'::half[], '{-1,-1}'::half[]);
+SELECT cosine_distance('{1,2}'::half[], '{3}'::half[]);
+SELECT cosine_distance('{1,1}'::half[], '{1.1,1.1}'::half[]);
+SELECT cosine_distance('{1,1}'::half[], '{-1.1,-1.1}'::half[]);
+SELECT '{1,2}'::half[] <=> '{2,4}'::half[];
+
+SELECT l1_distance('{0,0}'::half[], '{3,4}');
+SELECT l1_distance('{0,0}'::half[], '{0,1}');
+SELECT l1_distance('{1,2}'::half[], '{3}');
--- a/test/t/012_hnsw_build_recall.pl
+++ b/test/t/012_hnsw_build_recall.pl
@@ -95,10 +95,11 @@ for my $i (0 .. $#operators)

 	$node->safe_psql("postgres", "DROP INDEX idx;");

-	# Build index in parallel in memory
+	# Build index in parallel
 	my ($ret, $stdout, $stderr) = $node->psql("postgres", qq(
 		SET client_min_messages = DEBUG;
 		SET min_parallel_table_scan_size = 1;
+		SET hnsw.enable_parallel_build = on;
 		CREATE INDEX idx ON tst USING hnsw (v $opclass);
 	));
 	is($ret, 0, $stderr);
@@ -108,21 +109,6 @@ for my $i (0 .. $#operators)
 	test_recall($min, $operator);

 	$node->safe_psql("postgres", "DROP INDEX idx;");
-
-	# Build index in parallel on disk
-	# Set parallel_workers on table to use workers with low maintenance_work_mem
-	($ret, $stdout, $stderr) = $node->psql("postgres", qq(
-		ALTER TABLE tst SET (parallel_workers = 2);
-		SET client_min_messages = DEBUG;
-		SET maintenance_work_mem = '4MB';
-		CREATE INDEX idx ON tst USING hnsw (v $opclass);
-		ALTER TABLE tst RESET (parallel_workers);
-	));
-	is($ret, 0, $stderr);
-	like($stderr, qr/using \d+ parallel workers/);
-	like($stderr, qr/hnsw graph no longer fits into maintenance_work_mem/);
-
-	$node->safe_psql("postgres", "DROP INDEX idx;");
 }

 done_testing();
--- a/test/t/019_hnsw_half.pl
+++ b/test/t/019_hnsw_half.pl
@@ -0,0 +1,93 @@
+use strict;
+use warnings;
+use PostgresNode;
+use TestLib;
+use Test::More;
+
+my $node;
+my @queries = ();
+my @expected;
+my $limit = 20;
+
+sub test_recall
+{
+	my ($min, $operator) = @_;
+	my $correct = 0;
+	my $total = 0;
+
+	my $explain = $node->safe_psql("postgres", qq(
+		SET enable_seqscan = off;
+		EXPLAIN ANALYZE SELECT i FROM tst ORDER BY v $operator '$queries[0]' LIMIT $limit;
+	));
+	like($explain, qr/Index Scan/);
+
+	for my $i (0 .. $#queries)
+	{
+		my $actual = $node->safe_psql("postgres", qq(
+			SET enable_seqscan = off;
+			SELECT i FROM tst ORDER BY v $operator '$queries[$i]' LIMIT $limit;
+		));
+		my @actual_ids = split("\n", $actual);
+		my %actual_set = map { $_ => 1 } @actual_ids;
+
+		my @expected_ids = split("\n", $expected[$i]);
+
+		foreach (@expected_ids)
+		{
+			if (exists($actual_set{$_}))
+			{
+				$correct++;
+			}
+			$total++;
+		}
+	}
+
+	cmp_ok($correct / $total, ">=", $min, $operator);
+}
+
+# Initialize node
+$node = get_new_node('node');
+$node->init;
+$node->start;
+
+# Create table
+$node->safe_psql("postgres", "CREATE EXTENSION vector;");
+$node->safe_psql("postgres", "CREATE TABLE tst (i int4, v half[3]);");
+$node->safe_psql("postgres",
+	"INSERT INTO tst SELECT i, ARRAY[random(), random(), random()]::numeric[]::half[] FROM generate_series(1, 10000) i;"
+);
+
+# Generate queries
+for (1 .. 20)
+{
+	my $r1 = rand();
+	my $r2 = rand();
+	my $r3 = rand();
+	push(@queries, "{$r1,$r2,$r3}");
+}
+
+# Check each index type
+my @operators = ("<->");
+my @opclasses = ("half_l2_ops");
+
+for my $i (0 .. $#operators)
+{
+	my $operator = $operators[$i];
+	my $opclass = $opclasses[$i];
+
+	# Get exact results
+	@expected = ();
+	foreach (@queries)
+	{
+		my $res = $node->safe_psql("postgres", "SELECT i FROM tst ORDER BY v $operator '$_' LIMIT $limit;");
+		push(@expected, $res);
+	}
+
+	# Add index
+	$node->safe_psql("postgres", "CREATE INDEX ON tst USING hnsw (v $opclass);");
+
+	my $min = $operator eq "<#>" ? 0.80 : 0.99;
+	test_recall($min, $operator);
+}
+
+done_testing();
Author	SHA1	Message	Date
Andrew Kane	47852e8d15	Started half indexing	2023-12-03 15:12:50 -08:00
Andrew Kane	422667f6c6	Added half type	2023-12-03 13:01:47 -08:00