diff --git a/src/gateway/server-model-catalog.test.ts b/src/gateway/server-model-catalog.test.ts
index e5c20045eafc..592d80e64a91 100644
--- a/src/gateway/server-model-catalog.test.ts
+++ b/src/gateway/server-model-catalog.test.ts
@@ -35,6 +35,39 @@ function model(id: string): GatewayModelChoice {
 
 const getConfig = () => ({}) as OpenClawConfig;
 
+function createRefreshingCatalogLoader(
+  firstCatalog: GatewayModelChoice[],
+  secondCatalog: GatewayModelChoice[],
+) {
+  return vi
+    .fn<LoadModelCatalogForTest>()
+    .mockResolvedValueOnce(firstCatalog)
+    .mockResolvedValueOnce(secondCatalog);
+}
+
+async function expectCatalog(
+  loadModelCatalog: LoadModelCatalogForTest,
+  catalog: GatewayModelChoice[],
+  readOnly = true,
+) {
+  await expect(
+    loadGatewayModelCatalog({
+      getConfig,
+      loadModelCatalog,
+      ...(readOnly ? {} : { readOnly: false }),
+    }),
+  ).resolves.toBe(catalog);
+}
+
+async function markStaleAndExpectPreviousCatalog(
+  loadModelCatalog: LoadModelCatalogForTest,
+  catalog: GatewayModelChoice[],
+) {
+  markGatewayModelCatalogStaleForReload();
+  await expectCatalog(loadModelCatalog, catalog);
+  await vi.waitFor(() => expect(loadModelCatalog).toHaveBeenCalledTimes(2));
+}
+
 describe("loadGatewayModelCatalog", () => {
   beforeEach(async () => {
     await resetModelCatalogCacheForTest();
@@ -82,46 +115,26 @@ describe("loadGatewayModelCatalog", () => {
   it("caches an empty read-only catalog until reload marks it stale", async () => {
     const emptyCatalog: GatewayModelChoice[] = [];
     const freshCatalog = [model("gpt-5.5")];
-    const loadModelCatalog = vi
-      .fn<LoadModelCatalogForTest>()
-      .mockResolvedValueOnce(emptyCatalog)
-      .mockResolvedValueOnce(freshCatalog);
+    const loadModelCatalog = createRefreshingCatalogLoader(emptyCatalog, freshCatalog);
 
-    await expect(loadGatewayModelCatalog({ getConfig, loadModelCatalog })).resolves.toBe(
-      emptyCatalog,
-    );
-    await expect(loadGatewayModelCatalog({ getConfig, loadModelCatalog })).resolves.toBe(
-      emptyCatalog,
-    );
+    await expectCatalog(loadModelCatalog, emptyCatalog);
+    await expectCatalog(loadModelCatalog, emptyCatalog);
 
     expect(loadModelCatalog).toHaveBeenCalledTimes(1);
 
-    markGatewayModelCatalogStaleForReload();
-    await expect(loadGatewayModelCatalog({ getConfig, loadModelCatalog })).resolves.toBe(
-      emptyCatalog,
-    );
-    await vi.waitFor(() => expect(loadModelCatalog).toHaveBeenCalledTimes(2));
+    await markStaleAndExpectPreviousCatalog(loadModelCatalog, emptyCatalog);
     await vi.waitFor(async () => {
-      await expect(loadGatewayModelCatalog({ getConfig, loadModelCatalog })).resolves.toBe(
-        freshCatalog,
-      );
+      await expectCatalog(loadModelCatalog, freshCatalog);
     });
   });
 
   it("does not cache an empty full catalog so the next all-model request retries", async () => {
     const emptyCatalog: GatewayModelChoice[] = [];
     const freshCatalog = [model("gpt-5.5")];
-    const loadModelCatalog = vi
-      .fn<LoadModelCatalogForTest>()
-      .mockResolvedValueOnce(emptyCatalog)
-      .mockResolvedValueOnce(freshCatalog);
+    const loadModelCatalog = createRefreshingCatalogLoader(emptyCatalog, freshCatalog);
 
-    await expect(
-      loadGatewayModelCatalog({ getConfig, loadModelCatalog, readOnly: false }),
-    ).resolves.toBe(emptyCatalog);
-    await expect(
-      loadGatewayModelCatalog({ getConfig, loadModelCatalog, readOnly: false }),
-    ).resolves.toBe(freshCatalog);
+    await expectCatalog(loadModelCatalog, emptyCatalog, false);
+    await expectCatalog(loadModelCatalog, freshCatalog, false);
 
     expect(loadModelCatalog).toHaveBeenCalledTimes(2);
   });
@@ -135,21 +148,13 @@ describe("loadGatewayModelCatalog", () => {
       .mockResolvedValueOnce(staleCatalog)
       .mockReturnValueOnce(refresh.promise);
 
-    await expect(loadGatewayModelCatalog({ getConfig, loadModelCatalog })).resolves.toBe(
-      staleCatalog,
-    );
+    await expectCatalog(loadModelCatalog, staleCatalog);
 
-    markGatewayModelCatalogStaleForReload();
-    await expect(loadGatewayModelCatalog({ getConfig, loadModelCatalog })).resolves.toBe(
-      staleCatalog,
-    );
-    await vi.waitFor(() => expect(loadModelCatalog).toHaveBeenCalledTimes(2));
+    await markStaleAndExpectPreviousCatalog(loadModelCatalog, staleCatalog);
 
     refresh.resolve(freshCatalog);
     await vi.waitFor(async () => {
-      await expect(loadGatewayModelCatalog({ getConfig, loadModelCatalog })).resolves.toBe(
-        freshCatalog,
-      );
+      await expectCatalog(loadModelCatalog, freshCatalog);
     });
   });
 
@@ -162,25 +167,15 @@ describe("loadGatewayModelCatalog", () => {
       .mockRejectedValueOnce(new Error("provider offline"))
       .mockResolvedValueOnce(freshCatalog);
 
-    await expect(loadGatewayModelCatalog({ getConfig, loadModelCatalog })).resolves.toBe(
-      staleCatalog,
-    );
+    await expectCatalog(loadModelCatalog, staleCatalog);
 
-    markGatewayModelCatalogStaleForReload();
-    await expect(loadGatewayModelCatalog({ getConfig, loadModelCatalog })).resolves.toBe(
-      staleCatalog,
-    );
-    await vi.waitFor(() => expect(loadModelCatalog).toHaveBeenCalledTimes(2));
+    await markStaleAndExpectPreviousCatalog(loadModelCatalog, staleCatalog);
 
-    await expect(loadGatewayModelCatalog({ getConfig, loadModelCatalog })).resolves.toBe(
-      staleCatalog,
-    );
+    await expectCatalog(loadModelCatalog, staleCatalog);
     await vi.waitFor(() => expect(loadModelCatalog).toHaveBeenCalledTimes(3));
 
     await vi.waitFor(async () => {
-      await expect(loadGatewayModelCatalog({ getConfig, loadModelCatalog })).resolves.toBe(
-        freshCatalog,
-      );
+      await expectCatalog(loadModelCatalog, freshCatalog);
     });
   });
 });